Test One Flashcards
the science of behavior and mental processes
psychology
knowledge must be acquired through careful observation rather than from logic or intuition
empiricism
a collection of interrelated ideas and observations that together describe, explain, and predict behavior or mental processes
theory
this type of research involves describing existing events rather than performing a manipulation of an independent variable and observing changes
descriptive research methods
focus on one person-one case-which receives intense study
case studies
a technique in which researchers collect data about people in natural surroundings
naturalistic observation
research involves constructing questionnaires and administering the survey to a group of people
survey
attempt to establish the degree of a relationship between two variables
correlation studies
this school of psychological thought argued that it is necessary to study a persons total experience, not just parts of the mind or behavior
gestalt psychology
only a small segment of mental functioning
conscious
also contributes to thought and behavior by provoking slips of the tongue and by sending symbolic messages in dreams
unconscious
watson argued that psychology should focus on describing and measuring only what is observable, either directly or through assessment instruments
behaviorism
a reaction to behaviorism and its emphasis on the mechanistic nature of behavior
humanistic psychology
held that behaviorism was too restrictive in concentrating exclusively on overt behavior
cognitive psychology
emphasizes the positive values of optimism, joy, well-being, and psychological health
positive psychology
adaptation and survival of the fittest are mechanisms that produce the evolution of species
evolutionary psychology
the nervous system and heredity affect behavior and mental processes, including emotions, thoughts, and sensory experiences
biopsychology
social and cultural context influences a persons behavior, thoughts, and feelings
social and cultural
over the course of generations, the human brain and behavior have adapted in ways that allow the species to survive
evolutionary
a tendency of individuals to believe that their own ethnic or cultural group is the standard, the reference point against which other people and groups should be judged
ethnocentrism
the unwritten social and psychological guidebook that each of us learns and uses to interpret our world
culture
stress personal rather than group goals and value individual freedom and autonomy
individualist culture
favor group needs over individual ones
collectivist culture
the extent to which an individual identifies with one sex or the other
gender identity
a different concept, which describes the sexual orientation of the individual
sexual orientation
an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior or identity
heterosexism
professionals who study behavior and mental processes and use behavioral principles in scientific research or in applied settings
psychologists
provide diagnosis and treatment of emotional and behavioral problems
clinical psychologists
also work with people who have emotional or behavioral problems
counseling psychologists
physicians who have chosen to specialize in the treatment of mental or emotional disorders
psychiatrists
Describe what is involved in an experiment
Independent and dependent variables, random assignments of participants, experimental and control groups
How does psychology differ from common sense?
Precisely because it is science
The group of participants who receive the new treatment
experimental group
the comparison group- the group of participants who are tested on the dependent variable
control group
Which researcher attempted to explain the causes of behavior by cataloging and describing the relationships among events in the environment, a persons animal reactions, and the establishing of the learned connection between two
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
This researcher published a paper in which he contended that the subject matter of psychology should be behavior, rather than the contents of consciousness
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
The first African American doctorate to teach psychology in the U.S.; became Dean and then President of Wilberforce University
Gilbert H. Jones
Developed a training program at Howard University to train African-American psychologists
Francis Sumner
The first latina to earn a doctorate in the U.S.
Martha Bernal
The first latina elected president of the American Psychological Association
Melba Vasquez
the combination of ones education, income, and occupational status or prestige
social class
set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, establishing the science of psychology
Wilhem Wundt
Of those that earn a bachelors degree, about -blank-percent g on to graduate school
45
the nervous system is composed of billions of individual nerve cells called
neurons
(sensory neurons) which carry messages to the spinal cord and the brain
afferent neurons
(motor neurons) which carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to other structures in the body
efferent neurons
connect sensory neurons to motor neurons and outnumber both of these other types
interneurons
nourish the neurons and provide support functions
glial cells
-blank-percent of the cells in the brain are important in forming connections between neurons
90 percent
a thin, white, fatty layer that covers some large motor neurons and insulates them from other neurons
myelin sheath
the space between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites, cell body, or axons of other neurons
synapse
(spike discharge) is an electrical current that travels along the axon of a neuron, initiated by the rapid reversal if the polarization of the cell membrane
action potential
chemical substances stored in synaptic vesicles
neurotransmitters
pushes the receiving neuron toward its threshold for firing
excitatory postsynaptic potential EPSP
pushes the neuron away from its threshold, making it less likely to fire
inhibitory postsynaptic potential IPSP
receptors which appear in many parts of the brain and throughout the body, indicating that this neurotransmitter is involved in many functions
acetylcholine
inhibitory neurotransmitter which is involved in a wide variety of behaviors, as well as being associated with some behavior problems
gamma-aminobutryic acid GABA
a substance derived from the amino acid tryptophan
serotonin
involved in a variety of physical processes and behaviors, which include movement, thought processes, emotion, and feelings of reward and pleasure
dopamine
plays a role in arousal reactions and acts in several parts of the brain, increasing heart rate, respiration, sweating, and dilation of the pupils in the eye
norepinephrine
the study of how drugs affect behavior
psychopharmacology
chemicals that mimic or facilitate the actions of neurotransmitters
agonists
the lowest of the three main divisions of the brain
hindbrain
a dense package of nerves lying just above the spinal cord that controls the heartbeat and breathing through which many neural signals pass
medulla
helps regulate a persons state of arousal
reticular formation
provides a link between the hindbrain and the rest of the brain
pons
a structure in the hindbrain, influences balance, coordination, and movement, including single joint actions such as the flexing of an elbow or knee
cerebellum
consists of nuclei that receive neural signals from other parts of the brain and from the spinal cord
midbrain
the largest and most complex brain structure in humans. located at the top of the brain
forebrain
acts primarily as a routing station for sending information to other parts of the brain, although it probably also performs some interpretive functions
thalamus
much smaller than the thalamus and is located just below it
hypothalamus
consists of an interconnected group of structures, in the forebrain, that influence emotions, memory, social behavior, seizure disorders, and other behaviors
limbic system
involved in learning and memory, navigating the environment, and some emotional functions
hippocampus
one of a pair of olive-shaped structures in the forebrain, is also involved in emotional behaviors
amygdala
the exterior covering of the hemispheres
cerebral cortex
in the front of the central sulcus
frontal lobe
behind the frontal lobe
parietal lobe
below the lateral fissure and the parietal lobe on each side of the brain
temporal lobe
at the back of the head behind the parietal and temporal lobes
occipital lobe
the structure that connects the cerebral hemispheres, is important to their function
corpus callosum
a technique in which researchers implant a thin wire, needle, or glass tube containing a chemical solution into or next to a single neuron and leave it there to measure the neurons electrical activity
single unit recording
measures electrical activity in the nervous systems of either nonhuman animals or humans EEG
electroencepphalograph
uses magnetic fields instead of X-rays to produce brain scans that have far greater clarity and resolution than CT scans
MRI- Magnetic Resonance Imaging
the product of an imaging technique that registers changes in the blood flow to the brain, which allow an assessment of what areas of the brain are more active
functional MRI (FMRI)
takes an alternative approach to localizing brain function. tracks radioactive substances injected into the bloodstream and allows researchers to see which areas of the brain become more active in experience of different sensations
PET- positron emission tomography
seem to have two distinct, independent brains, each with its own abilities
split brain individuals
the human brain remains capable of growth and development throughout the life span
plasticity
the formation of new neurons
neurogenesis
chemicals that are produced by the endocrine glands and that regulate the activities of specific organs or cells
hormones
ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endocrine glands
regulates the actions of many other endocrine glands; the master gland
pituitary gland
regulates body metabolism
thyroid gland
produce the steroid hormones that influence reproductive physiology and sexual behavior
gonads
produce epinephrine to mobilize the body in emergency situations
adrenal glands
the hormone that facilitates the transport of sugar (glucose) from the bloodstream into body cells
insulin
the study of heredity
genetics
the process by which physical traits and behavioral characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring
heredity
a persons biological makeup
nature
a persons experiences in the environment
nurture
microscopic strands of deoxyribonucleic acid found in the nucleus of every cell in the body
chromosomes
thousands of which line up along each chromosome
genes
a persons genetic makeup, which is fixed at conception
genotype
his or her observable characteristics
phenotype
focuses on the influence of genes on behavior
behavioral genetics
defined as the proportion of a traits variation among individuals in a population that is genetically determined
heritability
occur when two sperm fertilize two ova and the two resulting fertilized ova implant in the uterus and grow alongside each other
fraternal twins
occur when one fertilized ovum splits into two identical cells, which then begin to divide and form two individuals
identical twins
the total sequence of the genes on our DNA
genome
the study of gene expression influenced by factors other than changes in genes
epigenetics
the psychological perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time ad how evolutionary history affects the behavior of humans today
evolutionary psychology
compares different age groups simultaneously to identify differences between age groups on some dimension
cross-sectional research design
studies the same group of individuals repeatedly over time to identify developmental changes
longitudinal research design
combines the benefits of both cross-sectional and longitudinal research
sequential research design
new organism
zygote
the stage that the zygote travels down the fallopian tube toward the uterus for about 10 days, after which it becomes implanted in the inner lining of the uterus
embryo
will serve as a life support system providing oxygen, food, antibodies, and waste removal by way of the mothers bloodstream
placenta
the term for which the baby is referred to as, about the ninth week after conception
fetus
a time in which the organism is especially sensitive to environmental influences
critical period
substances or events that can produce complications to the other or fetus at any point during pregnancy or birth
teratogens
physical development, motor control, and coordination progress downward from the head to the feet
cephalocaudal trend
maturation and growth also progress from the center of the body outward to the extremities
proximodistal trend
if you touch the palm of the newborn baby, you are likely to find one of your fingers held in the surprisingly firm grip of a tiny fist
grasping reflex
in which the head turns toward a light touch on the cheek
rooting reflex
triggered by a finger, nipple, or pacifier placed in the mouth
sucking reflex
as the toes fan out in response to stroking the sole of the foot
babinski reflex
outstretching of the arms and legs and crying in response to a loud noise or the sensation of falling
moro reflex
to describe a set of organized mental structures, developed through experience, which serve as the building blocks of cognitive development
schema
the process by which a person absorbs new ideas and experiences and incorporates them into existing schemata
assimilation
allows them to modify previously developed schemata, adapting them to fit new experiences
accomidation
the foundation for all cognitive development, based on connecting sensory input with motor output
sensorimotor stage
the early-emerging and long-lasting pattern in an individuals disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of his or her emotional reactions
temperament
during this stage, children begin to represent the world symbolically; this can be observed in their rapid development of language as well as in imaginative or pretend play
preoperational stage
preschoolers tendency to develop magical explanations for things they cannot fully understand
magical thinking
refers to young childrens tendency to attribute human traits to non-living traits
animism
refers to the inability to perceive a situation or event except in relation to oneself
egocentrism
Piagets third stage of cognitive development, lasting from approximately age 7- age 11/12
concrete operational stage
the ability to recognize that objects can be transformed in some way, visually or physically, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume
conservation
vgotsky referred to the gap or difference between a childs current abilities and what he or she might accomplish with the guidance of a more skilled individual as the -blank-
zone of proximal development
the adult puts structure into place to support learning as needed
scaffolding
refer to the practical side of language
pragmatics
memories of a childs past
autobiographical memory
refers to conscious memory content and processes, which allows children to become more proficient with memory strategies
metamemory
preschoolers commonly assert themselves with both parents and peers
initiative vs. guilt
defined as all of the traits, competencies, attitudes, roles, and values we believe define or distinguish us
self-concept
such self-evaluations about her value and the feelings associated with them
self-esteem
refers to the stage of life that extends from the onset of puberty to the beginning of early adulthood
adolescence
gaining several inches in height in a single year
growth spurts
refers to the biological processes involved in maturation of the reproductive system, triggered by an increase in the production of sex hormones
puberty
genetically determined physical features that differentiate the sexes but are not directly involved with reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
in 1920, only 20 percent of young adults moved back home with parents after leaving home, but this had increased to almost 50 percent by the beginning of the 21st century
boomerang generation
individuals 65 years and older, retired, relaxing, and enjoying the fruits of their labors
late adulthood
