Test : History Implicit learning , personality theories , stress and health Flashcards
Learning , personality theories, stress and health
Observational Learning
Is a form of learning that occurs by watching, imitating, and understanding the behavior of others.
Observational learning acknowledges the cognitive processes
attention, memory, and motivation.
Characteristics of Observational learning
Modeling,Imitation,Reinforcement & Punishment,Role in Human Development
Modeling
In observational learning, individuals serve as models for others to observe. A model is someone who demonstrates a particular behavior, and the learner (observer) watches and tries to replicate that behavior.
Imitation
Observational learning involves imitating the actions or behaviors of the model. This imitation can occur in various domains, including motor skills, language, problem-solving, and social behaviors.
Role in Human Development
Observational learning plays a significant role in human development, particularly in childhood.
Reinforcement & Punishment
Observers can learn from the consequences experienced by the model. If a model’s behavior is followed by positive outcomes (reinforcement), the observer is more likely to imitate that behavior. Conversely, if the model experiences negative outcomes (punishment), the observer is less likely to imitate the behavior.
Mirror neurons
are specialized cells in the brain that play a significant role in observational learning and the understanding of others’ actions and emotions.
Implicit learning
refers to the process of acquiring knowledge or skills without conscious awareness or intention.
Characteristics of implicit learning
Unconscious Acquisition,Lack of Verbalization,Procedural Knowledge,Pattern Recognition,Influenced by Exposure
Unconscious Acquisition:
Implicit learning takes place without conscious awareness.
Lack of Verbalization
People who have undergone implicit learning may find it challenging to explain or describe what they have learned.
Procedural Knowledge
Implicit learning is often associated with procedural knowledge, which involves learning how to perform tasks, skills, or behaviors.
Pattern Recognition
Implicit learning frequently involves recognizing and responding to patterns, such as regularities or relationships in the environment.
Influenced by Exposure
Implicit learning benefits from repeated exposure to information or experiences.
Classical conditioning
is a type of learning where an individual associates a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response.
Operant conditioning
is a form of learning where behavior is shaped by the consequences that follow it.
Observational learning
also known as social learning or modeling, involves learning by watching and imitating others
Implicit learning
is the acquisition of knowledge or skills without conscious awareness or intention.
Personality
A person’s unique and relatively stable behavior patterns; the consistency of who you are, have been, and will become.
Character:
Personal characteristics that have been judged or evaluated.
Temperament
Hereditary aspects of personality, including sensitivity, moods, irritability, and adaptability.
Personality Trait
: Stable qualities that a person shows in most situations.
Personality Type
People who have several traits in common.
Personality theories
are frameworks that attempt to explain and describe the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make up an individual’s unique characteristics.
some key personality theories
Psychoanalytic Theory: Founder: Sigmund Freud
Humanistic Theory: Founders: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
Trait Theory: Key Figures: Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck
The Social Cognitive Theory: Key Figures: Albert Bandura
The self theory:
Psychoanalytic theory
is a psychological framework developed by Sigmund Freud that seeks to explain human behavior, personality development, and mental processes.
The key concepts associated with psychoanalytic theory:
Structure of the Mind: (Id, Ego, Super Ego)
Levels of Consciousness: (Conscious, Preconscious, Subconscious Mind)
Psychosexual Development: (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital Stage)
Defence Mechanisms: (Repression, Rationalization, Reaction formation, Projection, etc.)
Structure of the Mind
ID Dominant Testimonial,Ego Balancing Testimonial,Superego Influenced Testimonial,Id and Ego Conflict,Superego Struggle
ID Dominant Testimonial
Testimonial: “I couldn’t control my impulses. It was this intense desire for immediate satisfaction, like an insatiable hunger. I found myself doing things without thinking, driven purely by the need to fulfill my desires, consequences be damned.“
Ego Balancing Testimonial
Testimonial: “I had to find a way to navigate between what I wanted and what was realistically possible. There was this constant internal negotiation, weighing my desires against the demands of the real world. It felt like trying to find a compromise between the pleasure I sought and the consequences I couldn’t ignore.“
Superego Influenced Testimonial
Testimonial: “I was haunted by this inner voice, like a strict moral compass. Every action was scrutinized against an idealized standard of behavior. Guilt would engulf me if I deviated, making me question not just the act but the very core of who I was. It was as if I carried the judgment of society within me.
Id and Ego Conflict
Testimonial: “There was this constant tug-of-war inside me. On one side, I felt this primal urge pushing me towards pleasure and instant gratification (id). But at the same time, there was this rational part that knew the consequences and tried to find a middle ground, a way to satisfy my needs without cau
Superego Struggle
Testimonial: “I always felt this pressure to live up to certain expectations, not just my own but those imposed by society, family, and even past experiences. It was like a relentless internal judge, holding me accountable for every action. Straying from the ‘right’ path was met with an overwhelming sense of guilt and self-reproach.”
Defense Mechanism
Repression, Rationalization, Reaction formation, Projection, Regression, Displacement, Identification, Sublimation
Repression
Removing painful experiences and
unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind: “motivated forgetting.”
Rationalization
Supplying a reasonable-sounding
explanation for unacceptable feelings and behavior to conceal (mostly from oneself) one’s underlying motives or feelings.
Reaction formation
Unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated
version of their opposite.
Projection
Attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group.
Displacement
Shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative.
Regression
Reverting to an immature behavior or earlier stage of development, a time when things felt more secure, to deal with internal conflict and perceived threat.
Sublimation
Channelling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities.
Identification
Dealing with feelings of threat and anxiety by unconsciously taking on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful
or better able to cope.
Psychosexual Development
Oral,Anal,Phallic,Latency, Genital
Oral
The stage in which experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking ,and being fed
Anal
The stage in which experience is dominated by the pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces and urine, and toilet training
Phallic
The stage in which experience is dominated by the pleasure, conflict , and frustration associated with the phallic - genital region , as well as coping with powerful incestuous feelings of love , hate , jealousy, and conflict.
latency
The stage in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual , creative , interpersonal , and athletic skills
Genital
The time for the coming together of the mature adult personality with a capacity to love , work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner
Psychosexual development and defense mechanisms
play crucial roles in shaping the structure of the mind, encompassing the id, ego, and superego.
Psychosexual Development
Formation of Personality,Influence on Adult Behavior
Defense Mechanisms
Coping with Anxiety,Maintaining Psychological Equilibrium,Adaptation to Reality
Development of the Id, Ego, and Superego
ID (Pleasure Principle),Ego (Reality Principle),Superego (Moral Conscience)
The humanistic-existential approach
is a psychological perspective that combines elements from humanistic psychology and existentialism.
The social-cognitive approach
is a psychological perspective that integrates principles from both social psychology and cognitive psychology.
Reciprocal Determinism
Personality is shaped by the dynamic interplay between personal factors (thoughts, emotions), and the environment. Each of these components influences and is influenced by the others.
Cognitive-Affective Processing System (CAPS)
CAPS is a model proposed by Walter Mischel that highlights the role of cognitive and affective processes in shaping behavior across different situations.
He argues that the correlation between trait and behavior is only about .30.
Personal Constructs:
In the social-cognitive approach, individuals actively construct their understanding of the social world by organizing and interpreting information based on their unique personal constructs.
George Kelly (1955) argue that different personal constructs (construals) are the key to personality differences.
Mental Representations
Mental representations influence the way individuals perceive and interpret social information, shaping their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Locus of Control
The extent to which individuals believe they have control over events in their lives.
Julian Rotter’s concept of locus of control (1966) is integrated into the social-cognitive approach. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they have control over their outcomes, while those with an external locus of control attribute outcomes to external factors.
Limitation
Overemphasis on Cognition,Limited Attention to Individual Differences
Limited Attention to Individual Differences
Some critics suggest that the approach might not adequately account for the diversity and uniqueness of individual personalities, as it often focuses on general principles of social learning.
Overemphasis on Cognition
Critics argue that the social-cognitive approach may place too much emphasis on cognitive processes and may not fully capture the complexity of personality, including emotional and unconscious factors.
The Self: Personality in the Mirror
The concept of “The Self” refers to an individual’s perception and understanding of their own identity, personality, and existence
“The Self”
It is a complex and multifaceted construct that involves cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions. Understanding the self is integral to theories of personality and psychological well-being.
Self-Narrative:
Self-narrative is the story that we tell about ourselves.
Psychodynamic and humanistic–existential psychologists suggest that people’s self-narratives reflect their fantasies and thoughts about core motives and approaches to existence.
Self-Schema
Self-Schemas are sets of traits we use to define ourselves into a coherent scheme
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the evaluative component of the self-concept, representing the overall subjective emotional evaluation of one’s worth and value.
Some psychologists argue that high self-esteem arises from being accepted and valued by significant others (Brown, 1993) or judgments about one’s value or competence in a specific domain over other group members.
According to evolutionary theory, higher self-esteem is eevolutionary beneficial and provides a sense of security and reduces anxiety (ego balancing).
Self-Identity
Self-identity refers to a person’s unique sense of who they are in terms of roles, relationships, and personal history.
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness involves being conscious of one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, as well as having an understanding of how others perceive them
Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the ability to control and manage one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in line with personal values and long-term goals.
Social Identity
Social identity refers to the part of an individual’s self-concept that is derived from their identification with social groups, such as family, ethnicity, nationality, or other affiliations.
Significance of “Self”
Psychological Well-Being,Interpersonal Relationships,Motivation and Goal Pursuit
sychological Well-Being
A positive and stable self-concept is associated with higher levels of psychological well-being, including greater life satisfaction and resilience.
Interpersonal Relationships
The way individuals perceive themselves influences their interactions with others. Healthy self-perception contributes to more positive and fulfilling relationships.
Motivation and Goal Pursuit
A clear and positive self-concept can enhance motivation and goal pursuit. Individuals with a strong sense of self are often more driven to achieve their objectives.
Adaptation to Change
A flexible and adaptive self-concept allows individuals to navigate life transitions and adapt to changing circumstances more effectively.
Bias and the “Self”
Name-letter effect,Cocktail party effect
Name-letter effect
The name letter effect isthe tendency to evaluate alphabetical letters in one’s name, especially initials, particularly favorably.
Cocktail party effect
Thecocktail party effectrefers to the phenomenon wherein you focuseson a particular stimulus, usuallyauditory. This focus excludes a range of other stimuli from conscious awareness, as when a partygoer follows a single conversation in a noisy room.
Stress
is a physiological and psychological response to a perceived threat or demand
There are few ways we can classify different type of stress
Acute Stress
Chronic Stress
Cumulative Stress
Physical Stress
Traumatic Stress
Chronic Stress
Chronic stress is long-term and persists over an extended period. It can result from ongoing issues such as work-related stress, financial problems, or chronic health conditions.
Acute Stress
This is a brief and intense form of stress triggered by a specific event or circumstance. It can be a response to immediate challenges or pressure
Physical Stress
This type of stress is related to physical demands placed on the body. This can include strenuous exercise, lack of sleep, or exposure to extreme temperatures.
Cumulative Stress
This type of stress occurs when multiple smaller stressors accumulate over time, gradually causing an increasing burden on an individual’s well-being.
Traumatic Stress
This results from exposure to a traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, accident, or personal assault. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) can develop in response to such events.
The “fight-or-flight” response
is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived threat, preparing the body to either confront the stressor (fight) or flee from it (flight).
Physical reaction to prolong stress
Hypertension (High Blood Pressure):
Immune System Suppression: .
Gastrointestinal Problems:
Gastrointestinal Problems:
Musculoskeletal Issues:
Weight Gain or Loss:
Hypertension (High Blood Pressure):
Chronic stress can contribute to sustained high blood pressure, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke.
Immune System Suppression:
Chronic stress may suppress the immune system, making the body more susceptible to infections and illnesses.
Gastrointestinal Problems:
Stress can contribute to digestive issues such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), indigestion, and inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract.
Gastrointestinal Problems:
Stress can contribute to digestive issues such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), indigestion, and inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract.
Musculoskeletal Issues:
Chronic stress can contribute to muscle tension, headaches, and pain in the neck and shoulders.
Weight Gain or Loss:
Stress can affect appetite and eating habits (stress eating vs loss in appetite), leading to weight gain or loss.
Physical reaction to prolong stress
Sleep Disorders,Mental Health Issues,Accelerated Aging
General Adaptation Syndrome
is a model that describes the body’s response to stress.
General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm Stage,Resistance Stage,Exhaustion Stage
