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Test 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are viruses?

A
  • contain genetic information and can make proteins
  • not cells(too small)
  • infectious particle
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2
Q

What type of cells are most likely infected by viruses?

A

-bacteria, archea, and protists

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3
Q

How many kinds of viruses are there?

A

millions of viruses

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4
Q

Where are viruses most abundant?

A

Oceans

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5
Q

What organisms can viruses infect?

A

Plants, animals, fungi, and other viruses(rare)

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6
Q

Can viruses reproduce on their own?

A

No, viruses need a host to reproduce.

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7
Q

What is a virus composed of?

A
  • nucleic acid(contains genetic information)
  • protein covering
  • capsid
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8
Q

Are viruses alive?

A

No, not considered alive because they can’t reproduce or metabolize on their own.
“edge of Life”

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9
Q

What kind of nucleic acid do viruses have?

A

DNA or RNA, called viral genome

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10
Q

What is a membrane envelope made of?

A

phospholipids

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11
Q

What is a capsid?

A

Genome coat

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12
Q

What do membrane envelopes contain?

A

Polymerase enzymes

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13
Q

Is genetic material in viruses single or double stranded?

Liner or circular

A

Can be either ss or ds.

Can be either linear or circular.

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14
Q

How large are the genomes of viruses?

A

Very small, containing 3-200 genes

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15
Q

What are viral envelopes made of?

A

Phospholipids and proteins

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16
Q

Where does viral membrane come from?

A

Stolen from host cell

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17
Q

Where do the proteins in a viral envelope come from?

A

From virus

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18
Q

What is a glycoprotein?

A

Protein with carbohydrates attached

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19
Q

How do viruses recognize host cells?

A

Viruses have proteins on their surface that recognize receptor proteins on host cells

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20
Q

how did viruses come to use host cell receptors?

A

viruses evolved to use host cell receptors

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21
Q

First step of virus replication in DNA?

A

virus enters host by injection, engulfing, or fusing membranes

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22
Q

Second step of virus replication in DNA?

A

host cell begins to copy virus genome

  • replication
  • transcription and translation to make virus proteins
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23
Q

Third step pf virus replication in DNA?

A

self assembly

-new virus uses host’s nucleotides, enzymes, and ribosomes to reassemble

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24
Q

Fourth step of virus replication in DNA?

A

Production of hundreds to thousands of viruses

  • can infect other cells
  • host cells damaged, which cause symptoms
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25
Q

1st way RNA can act in protein synthesis?

A

RNA can act as mRNA

-proteins can be directly synthesized

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26
Q

2nd way RNA can act in protein synthesis?

A

RNA can serve as a template for RNA synthesis

-before proteins are synthesized

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27
Q

3rd way RNA can act in protein synthesis?

A

RNA serves as a template for DNA synthesis

-occurs in retroviruses

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28
Q

Describe reverse transcription.

A
  • Viral RNA used as template to make a single-strand of DNA
  • Second DNAn strand made complementary to first
  • Uses transcriptase enzyme
  • double stranded DNA molecule made and incorporated into host cell DNA
  • used as genome for new viruses
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29
Q

What kinds of hosts do viruses tend to bind with?

A

Most viruses are host specific or specific to host tissues
ex: measels-humans
cold virus-upper respiratory tract

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30
Q

What is meant by the term generalists?

A

Generalists are viruses that are not host specific.

ex: west nile virus-mosqitoes->humans

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31
Q

Why do viruses have high evolution rates?

A
  • small genomes
  • high mutation rates
  • recombination
  • avoid immune defenses
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32
Q

Why do viruses have high mutation rates?

A

Virus and host polymerase is not accurate

host polymerase is not able to repair viruses

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33
Q

What is virus recombination?

A

exchanging of genetic material with one another

-swapping of viral and host DNA

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34
Q

Examples of virus evolution.

A
  • Aviation-birds->primates

- HIV->primates->humans

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35
Q

What are phages?

A

viruses that attack bacteria

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36
Q

What are bacterial lines of defense?

A
  • Can evolve surface proteins to avoid recognition

- enzymes that can recognize and cut up viruses

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37
Q

What is the CRISPR-Cas System?

A

system that recognizes and cuts up virus genomes in bacteria

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38
Q

Describe virus evolution.

A
  • small genomes so fast replication
  • high mutation rate due to polymerase sloppiness
  • virus recombination
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39
Q

What are CRISPRS?

A

repeat sequences of genome

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40
Q

What is cas?

A

nuclease enzyme that forms a complex complementary RNA strand that binds to DNA from the phage
-causes this DNA to no longer be replicated

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41
Q

How is the CRIPR-cas system used to edit genes?

A

Can be targeted to cut any genome by using a complementary RNA to bind to any gene

  • repair system will then add or delete
  • without a template strand, the gene will become disabled
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42
Q

What is SARS-COv-2

A

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2

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43
Q

Where do coronaviruses get their name?

A

from the crownlike lipid envelope projections

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44
Q

What diseases have been caused by coronaviruses?

A

SARS, MERS, COIDS

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45
Q

Characteristics unique to SARS-COV-2?

A

large genomes, code for many proteins, low mutation rates(stable in hosts), evade host immune systems and stop host immune responses

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46
Q

What is the role of coronavirus’ RNA?

A

Acts as mRNA

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47
Q

Describe a coronavirus genome.

A
  • ss RNA(acts as mRNA)
  • 5’ caps and poly-A tails
  • translated upon cell entry
  • large genomes
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48
Q

Describe the coronavirus’ genome.

A

13 genes- 27 proteins

multiple proteins from the same gene

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49
Q

What is used to attach Covid to a cell receptor?

A

spike proteins

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50
Q

What is the host cell receptor?

A

ACE-2

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51
Q

How does spike protein attach to receptor?

A

The spike protein changes shape and leads to fusion

52
Q

How does virus genome enter host?

A

Through a channel

53
Q

Describe spike protein structure.

A

flexible and waves in a sweeping motion on a stalk

54
Q

What is the ACE-2 receptor?

A

Angiotensin 1 converting enzyme 2

-found in throat and lungs

55
Q

What does ACE-2 do?

A

regulates cardiovascular function and other processes

56
Q

What happens when infection occurs?

A
  • virus is in cell-lining
  • replicates and infects other cells
  • cells lining airway damaged or killed
  • inflammation of nerves leads to cough and sore throat
57
Q

What is infection?

A

invasion of body by something that causes disease

58
Q

What is inflammation

A
  • Body’s way of processing and fighting against things that harm it
  • immune system will release chemicals that make the rest of the immune system work
59
Q

What are the mild effects of covid?

A
  • cough and sore throat
  • when in upper respiratory system
  • upper respiratory system: pharynx, larynx, nose
60
Q

What are the severe effects covid?

A
  • reduction of gas exchange
  • pneumonia
  • Acute respiratory Disease in lower respiratory
    lower: trachea, bronchi, lungs
61
Q

What does SARS-Cov-2 code for?

A

Many proteins: polymerase(RdRp)

  • helicase
  • single-stranded binding protein(SSB)
  • exonuclease
62
Q

Does Covid have a proofreading mechanism?

A

yes,
it has low mutation rates and large genome size
also has minor variations in SARS-COV-2

63
Q

How does covid stop normal gene expression?

A
  • Stops translation
  • physically blocks binding sites on ribosomes so cell proteins can’t be made
  • hinders host immune system
64
Q

What determines how translation occurs?

A

-structure of RNA determines how ribosomes move in translation

65
Q

What are vesicles?

A

chambers of phospholipid bilayer

viruses may “hide” in these vesicles

66
Q

What kinds of vaccines are being developed to fight covid?

A

drugs that target spike proteins

molecules that disrupt viral proteins by binding to them

67
Q

Describe the mRNA vaccine.

A
  • mRNA associates w/ ribosomes
  • ribosomes make viral spike proteins
  • host immune system perceives spike proteins and create antibodies
68
Q

What are antibodies?

A

proteins produced by immune system that help neutralize pathogens

69
Q

How does hand washing work kill viruses?

A
  • soap and water help break apart lipid envelopes of virus

- viral fragments get trapped in soap lipids and wash off in water hydrophilic and phobic parts

70
Q

What limits the size of a cell?

A

Ratio of surface area to volume of cytoplasm

71
Q

What tells you whether a cell is eukaryotic or prokaryotic?

A

if the cell is partitioned by internal membranes

72
Q

what correctly identifies a main structural difference between viruses with envelopes or without them?

A

Only viruses with envelopes have their contents enclosed by a layer containing lipids

73
Q

If a viral cell has a mutation that interferes with the addition of carbohydrates to proteins during processing in the Golgi apparatus, which is most likely to occur?

A

Viruses produced by that cell would have decreased ability to infect cells than the virus that originally infected the cell

74
Q

Describe cellular structure or function.

A

Plant and animal cells both carry out cellular respiration, producing ATP

75
Q

Disruption of nuclear pore complexes in a eukaryotic cell will most likely interfere with transport of which molecules out of nucleus

A

mRNA

76
Q

What diseases would be helpful in analyzing

A

SARS and MERS because they are also coronaviruses

77
Q

Which disease is most similar to COVID in origin + to humans?

A

Ebola, bats-> humans-> other humans

78
Q

Ace-2 receptors are most important where?

A

Larynx

79
Q

if a patient is suffering from a cytokine storm, what do you need to treat?

A

Congestion and inflammation in the lungs

80
Q

Where would black spots appear on a an emulsion prepared 3 hours after pulse?

A

exterior of the cell

81
Q

What path does protein in the secretory pathway take?

A

Rough ER, golgi apparatus, secretory vessels, plasma membrane

82
Q

If being at room temp can inactivate HIV but not flu, what is the consequence?

A

the flu can be transmitted more easily

83
Q

how do viruses replicate in human cells?

A

viral genome codes from specialized enzymes not found in host cells

84
Q

Disassembly of lamina by chemical treatment would most likely result in what?

A

Change in shape of nucleus

85
Q

A cell with dominance of rough ER is likely to be involved with what?

A

producing large quantities of proteins for secretions

86
Q

Which event is associated with breakdown of food?

A

Digestion occurs in vesicle enclosed by membrane

87
Q

What do mitochondria and chloroplasts have in common?

A

Contain their own DNA

88
Q

What is host range determined by?

A

proteins

89
Q

What is common in bacteria and viruses?

A

Genetic material from nucleic acid

90
Q

Radioactive organelles detected by which

A

nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts

91
Q

How does E.coli work?

A

Virus infected by bacterium and bacteria cell population replaced with phages

92
Q

Which virus shapes have capsids?

A

All of them

93
Q

Genetic material of HIV has what kind of genome

A

Single-stranded RNA

94
Q

When a virus invades a host cell, what does it always need to do?

A
  • make copies of own genome-replication

- make viral proteins using host resources

95
Q

viral genomes can be either RNA or DNA. When viral genomes are RNA, it always acts as mRNA and is directly translated to proteins.

A

False. Some viruses RNA can act as mRNA and some can’t.

96
Q

What does the CRISPR Cas system do?

A

defends bacteria from viral infections

97
Q

how does the cas-enzyme in system function?

A

cuts the DNA of infectious agent invading host cell

98
Q

how is the CRISPR used for gene editing?

A

Disables and repairs defective target genes in a cell

99
Q

Consider 2 cells with the same column but with different surface areas due to differences in shape. The cell with the largest surface area

A

Involved in rapid uptake of comps from the cell’s environment

100
Q

The Volume and surface area for 3 different cells are in table. Based on table, which statement, best explains which cells will be able to best eliminate metabolic waste.

A

Surface area increases when total volume remains constant

101
Q

An early step involved involved in evolution of eukaryotic cells most likely involved in which event?

A
  • A host cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell that could use oxygen to make energy and become and organelle
  • A host cell engulfed a photosynthetic cell which became organelle
102
Q

Which statement is correct regarding the role of cholesterol in animal cell membranes?

A
  • cholesterol makes membrane less fluid at normal body temp

- rigid shape of cholesterol causes to not pack together well

103
Q

This is a protein in some prokaryotic cells that moves H+ ions out of cell. Which correctly characterizes proteins?

A
  • integral membrane protein
  • transmembrane protein
  • transport membrane protein
104
Q

What is cell theory?

A
  • all life composed of cells
  • all organisms made of 1 or more cells
  • fundamental unit of life
  • formed from cell division, all cells come from other cells
105
Q

Which are prokaryotic?

A
  • bacteria and archea

- domains of life

106
Q

Which are eukaryotic?

A
  • eukarya

- archea close related to eukarya than bacteria

107
Q

how many types of cells do humans have?

A
  • 200 cell types(minimum)

- 37 trillion in human body

108
Q

What is cell size?

A

-at minimum need to contain DNA and enough components to carry out metabolism and cell division

109
Q

How is cell size determined?

A

It’s dictated by surface Area to volume ratio

110
Q

Describe the ratio of Surface area and volume.

A

as an object increases in size, it’s volume increases more than it’s surface area. Small cell has more SA than V

111
Q

Formula for cell size.

A

SA/V

112
Q

What size are most cells?

A

-Most cells are microscopic

113
Q

How to increase Surface Area?

A

elongated or flat shape

small projections called microvilli

114
Q

What are biggest cells?

A

Egg cells-elephant bird eggs

Nerve cells-laryngeal nerves in neck

115
Q

What are the basic features of all cells?

A
  • plasma membrane
  • cytoplasm
  • chromosomes
  • ribosomes
116
Q

plasma membrane

A
  • general structure: phospholipid bilayer with many embedded proteins
  • selective barrier around cell
  • allows passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
117
Q

chromosomes

A

-contain genetic material-DNA

118
Q

Cytoplasm

A

-enter contents of cell except nucleus

119
Q

cytosol

A

-jellylike substance that components of cells are suspended in

120
Q

ribosomes

A

-synthesize proteins

121
Q

Where is DNA in a eukaryotic cell?

A

DNA in nucleus
nucleus bounded by double membrane
nuclear envelope

122
Q

Where in DNA in prokaryotic cell?

A

DNA concentrated in nucleoid

not enclosed by membrane

123
Q

Which cells have organelles?

A

eukaryotic cells have organelles

124
Q

organelles?

A

subunits of cell enclosed by membrane

allow for compartmentalation and specialization

125
Q

What is a plasma membrane?

A
  • phospholipid bilayer

- can be highly folded to increase the surface area

bio 101 (1 decks)

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