Test 3 (Final) Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Gestalt Psychology: A New Perspective

Answer

A

-Revolt from then dominant empirical psychology (e.g., behaviorism, elementism)

-Focus on an application of field theory to
Psychology
-Physicists: How interacting elements combine to create an overall pattern or force
-Gestaltists: The brain is a configuration of forces that transform sensory information into something meaningful

Major figures include Wertheimer, Koffka & Köhler, who ask a major question…
How do separate, attended to stimuli become an experienced whole? When looking at its parts, how do you know what it is?

Question 2

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Psychophysical Isomorphism & the Law of Pragnanz

Answer

A

Law of Pragnanz
- The brain has a tendency to construct meaning that represents the simplest, most stable, and most regular and symmetrical understanding of the world
- In other words, we like to create simplicity and order in what we experience
- Your brain is about keeping things organized and simple, so it’s easily understood
The brain transforms sensory information into a conscious/mental experience (Psychophysical Isomorphism)
- A pattern of energy from a sensory signal will generate a similar pattern of energy in the brain
- However, it won’t be a perfect one-to-one correspondence due to the Law of Pragnanz
- Textbook example of the actual topography of the United States and that depicted in a map
Brain analyzes and organizes these activities from the top (whole) to the bottom (parts)
- The “whole” applies meaning to all those parts (in this chapter particularly with perception); brain drives meaning

Question 3

Q

Gestalt Perception: Terminology

Answer

A

Perceptual constancy
The figure/ground relationship
Principle of continuity
Principle of proximity
Principle of inclusiveness
Principle of similarity
Principle of closure

Question 4

Q

Perceptual Constancy

Answer

A

-Familiar objects have a standard shape, size, color, etc.

We still recognize the object despite changes in angle of perspective, distance, or lighting
- Ex: of door (no matter how far away it is, the way light is hitting it, its position/orientation, you still know what it is)
Due to ongoing brain activity and NOT the result of sensation and learning (empiricists)
Textbook gave example with brightness
Ex with joystick toy-looking thing:
Figures in “A” are all basically the same shape despite rotation
Figures in “A” are distinguishable from those in figure “B”
Figures in “C” and “D” are recognized from “A” despite perspective, elastic deformations, and differing graphic

-*You want your dentist, doctor, and surgeon to be really good at this

Question 5

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Figure-Ground Relationship

Answer

A

Visual: ability to see an object in a busy background
Auditory: ability to pick out a voice or sound from a noisy environment
Your ability to pick out what to focus on and ignore the rest
Terminology:
- Figure = object of attention
- Ground = that which is not attended to
Helps you:
- Find your favorite socks in a messy drawer
- FInd a specific book on a bookshelf
- Tell your mom’s voice from another woman’s voice
Poor skills mean:
- Can’t find information on a busy blackboard
- Lose place while reading
- Difficulty finding personal items in a cluttered place
Ex of finding ladybug in picture
Ex of finding hidden face in image of tiger

Question 6

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Principle of Continuity

Answer

A

The mind continues the pattern even if some of it is interrupted
- Visual
- Auditory (ex: of playing scale, they stop, but you know how it would’ve ended)
- Kinesthetic (ex: of golf players – you don’t see them swing, but you can imagine the movement)

-Most people would say they see two crossed, wavy lines or that the lines continue behind the tree (above)

Question 7

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Principle of Proximity

Answer

A

When stimuli are close together, they tend to be grouped together
If bad at it, may result in challenges with reading, writing, and mathematics (e.g., spatial errors)

Question 8

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Principle of Inclusiveness

Answer

A

When there is more than one figure, we see the figure that contains the greatest amount of stimuli
We tend to see the larger figure, not the smaller ones
This explains how camouflage works
- Looking at whole field, so ignore the smaller components that would differentiate it

Question 9

Q

Principle of Similarity

Answer

A

Similar objects will form perceptual units
Ex: With similar spacing, do the letters seem more like four rows or four columns? (x’s and o’s)
Features that look similar are seen as related
Used to create repetitive patterns that are pleasing to the eye
- Ex: of The Beatles “A Hard Day’s Night” album cover

Question 10

Q

Principle of Closure

Answer

A

Incomplete figures are perceived as complete figures
Ability to perceive the whole image when only part of it is available
Impacts reading and math
- Reading: Can recognize words without having to decode them; improves reading speed
- Math: Can recognize quantities without counting; we can see a number of objects and know how many there are (ex: guessing how many gumballs in a jar throughout different images)

-Comics (and graphic novels) require you to fill in the gaps between frames (keep storyline in your head)

Question 11

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Neuropsychology and Visual Visual Perceptual Skills

Answer

A

Example tests:
- Test of visual perceptual skills – 4
- Developmental test of visual perception – 3
Vision therapy (helps strengthen numbered areas)
Eyecanlearn.com
1. Visual discrimination (ability to find detail differences in images (Highlight subscription)
1. Visual memory
1. Visual figure-ground
1. Visual-spatial relationships (closely related to visual form constancy (#6); rotated objects ex)
1. Visual closure
1. Visual form constancy
1. Visual sequential memory

Question 12

Q

Gestalt and Learning - Insight

Answer

A

-Evidence of problem solving

Köhler’s interpretation
Perceive the situation as a whole
Understand the relationship between various stimuli
Problem is presented with the things necessary for the solution
This equates insight:
Solutions require:
Restructuring the perceptual field
Perceiving a new relationship between the stimuli
Transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete
Because the organism learns relationships, not responses (behaviorism) learning can be applied to similar situations
Transposition = “transfer of training”

Question 13

Q

Kurt Lewin and the Expansion of Gestalt Concepts - Overview

Answer

A

Used the concept of fields to explain behavior in terms of social influence
Extended the concepts beyond the aforementioned Gestalt framework
Concept of the “Life Space”:
Composed of objective and imagined; “life space” is the whole
The psychological field of the individual
- Encompasses all influences acting upon one at a given time
- Encompasses psychological facts
- Objective
- Awareness of internal events (e.g., hunger, fatigue)
- Awareness of external events (i.e., anything in one’s environment)
- Recollections of prior experiences (e.g., knowing that your boss tends to be cranky)
- Imagined
- Can include subjective beliefs (e.g., being unpopular at work)
- All of these require awareness in the moment (focus on the present)
The combination of psychological facts determine behavior in a given situation

Question 14

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Motivation

Answer

A

Equilibrium/Cognitive balance
- State of balance between the person and the environment
- Any disturbance of this equilibrium produces tension
- Leads to an action to relieve the tension and restore balance
Motivation is a consequence of disequilibrium
The Zeigarnik Effect
- Tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed ones
- Related to the tension caused by leaving a task incomplete
- Becomes part of the life space
What psychological conditions could result from the Zeigarnik Effect?
- Anxiety, which could lead to depression

Question 15

Q

Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Approach-Approach Conflict

Answer

A

Must choose between two or more desirable goals
Least stressful situation
Ex: ”Should I vacation in Bora Bora, Tahiti, or Bali, Indonesia?

Question 16

Q

Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Answer

A

Faced with two goals, both of which are repellent
Stressful situation
Idiom: Being between a rock and a hard place
Ex: “I hate my job, but I can’t quit and lose my income”

Question 17

Q

Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Answer

A

Mixed feelings about one goal (attracted and repelled)
Most stressful situation
Ex: ”I really want to eat this entire box of chocolates, but I know it will give me horrible acid reflux.”

Question 18

Q

Social Psychology

Answer

A

Research on Group Dynamics
- Behavior in group settings
- The nature of a group will influence the behavior of its members
- Influenced development of encounter groups and sensitivity training (like mob mentality)
- *group = whole; members = parts
Research on Leadership Styles in Group Settings
- Authoritarian Group (one leader makes decisions for all)
  - Yields highly aggressive group members
- Democratic (leader encourages discussion and participation in decision making)
  - Yields more productive and friendly group members
- Laissez-Faire (no leadership; no group decisions)
  - Yields unproductive group

Question 19

Q

A Different Perspective: Gestalt Therapy

Answer

A

-Embraces Holism: Interest in the whole person (i.e., thoughts, feelings, behaviors, body, memories, dreams)

Therapeutic goals include
- Awareness (how past behaviors interfere with living in the present)
- Quality contact between the individual and the environment
- Look at patient as a “whole”
Similar terminology, different meanings
- Field theory: Individuals must be understood in the context of their environment
- Figure: Client’s experiences that are most salient in the moment
- Ground: Aspects of experience out of client’s awareness
Known theorists: Fritz Perls, Miriam Polster
The “now” is what’s important
Took Gestalt Principles and put it into different/bigger ideas

Question 20

Q

Early Considerations of Mental Illness - Terminology

Answer

A

Past:
- Mad
- Lunatic
- Maniac
- Insane
Present:
- Psychopathy (mental term for “mental illness”)
- Psychopathology (study of mental illness)
- Abnormal Behavior

-Focus is on behavior and cognitive processes as they impact one’s ability to function in social, occupational, and educational settings

Question 21

Q

Common Themes

Answer

A

1. Harmful Behavior
  - To self and others (risk of harm to self and others)
  - Examples: Self-harm, suicide, homicide
  - Some cultures define such behaviors as appropriate depending upon the circumstances (e.g., honor killings)
1. Unrealistic Thoughts and Perceptions
  - Beliefs and perceptions that differ markedly from the norm
  - Represent a break from reality (reality testing is not intact)
  - Example: Delusions (beliefs) and hallucinations (perceptions)
    - Delusion: false belief system (ex: someone thinking their Christ reincarnate; everybody is out to get them; stalkers)
    - Hallucinations: seeing things, hearing things that aren’t there; not always frightening have perceptions that aren’t real (schizophrenics, but they also experience delusions)
1. Inappropriate Emotions
  - Emotional displays that are incongruent with the circumstance in which they are presented
  - Example: Extreme elation during a manic phase; laughing at a funeral
1. Unpredictable Behavior
  - Sudden shifts in beliefs and emotions
  - Example: mood swings related to Bipolar Disorder; impulsive reactions due to a paranoid mindset; people with borderline personality disorder)

-Important Note: The behaviors/emotions must always be considered in the context in which they occur and the cultural history must always be incorporated into the conceptualization of psychopathy

Question 22

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Current Definition: The 4Ds

Answer

A

1. Deviance:
  - From social norms and societal values
  - Specific circumstances or context (want to look at what society considers “normal”)
1. Distress:
  - Behavior, ideas, or emotions
  - Has to cause distress before being labeled abnormal
1. Dysfunction:
  - Abnormal behavior tends to interfere with daily functioning
1. Danger:
  - Dangerous to oneself or others
  - Typically the exception rather than the rule

Question 23

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Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Biological Explanations

Answer

A

“Medical Model”
All disease is caused by a body-based malfunction
Examples: congenital defect, injury, illness, genetics, physiological imbalance, toxins

Some psychological disorders are best understood with this model (e.g., schizophrenia)

Question 24

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Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Psychological Explanations

Answer

A

“Psychological Model”
Psychological events are the cause of abnormal behavior
Examples: grief, anxiety, fear, disappointment, guilt, conflict

Question 25

Q

Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Special Note

Answer

A

Biological and psychological explanations of mental illness often exist simultaneously; in reality, they work together
Example: There are biological and psychological explanations for why someone may experience anxiety or depression
Example: Diathesis-stress model
- Interaction of a pre-disposed vulnerability and an environmental (life experience) stress
- Explains why an individual with a genetic predisposition for a specific condition (e.g., substance abuse) may not experience it due to life in a healthy environment (genetic predisposition towards something, but whether it shows up or not depends on environment)

Question 26

Q

Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Supernatural Explanations

Answer

A

Popular during the Middle Ages
Mental and physical disorders are inflicted on people by mysterious forces (e.g., immortal beings)
Example: seizure disorders, demonic possession, and exorcism

Question 27

Q

Supernatural Approaches

Answer

A

-Coax out invading (evil) forces

Ritual approach
- Appeals and bribery
- Exorcism
- Incantations
Other techniques to let out invading forces
- Bleedings
- Trepanation (removing a portion of the skull)

Question 28

Q

Early Biological Approaches

Answer

A

Hippocrates and Galen (tried to be more practical)
Ailments were a function of the body
Natural remedies prescribed
- Fresh air
- Baths
- Special diets
- Rest
Soon followed by a return to the supernatural with religious overtones
Abnormal behavior = sinfulness and witchcraft
Start of witch hunts and inquisitions
Continued through the Renaissance

Question 29

Q

Early Psychological Approaches

Answer

A

-18th Century

Belief in natural law
- You get what you deserve
Mental illness was a punishment for a sinful life
Alleviate suffering by changing one’s ways (start of thinking that one needs to change behavior)
Start of psychotherapy
Therapist’s role:
- Help with behavior change
Various techniques
- Reenacting trauma
- Dream analysis

Question 30

Q

What is Psychotherapy?

Answer

A

Book definition: An attempt to help a person with mental illness
Technical definition: A series of techniques from various theoretical orientations designed to ameliorate the symptoms of psychopathy
Involves the client/patient, the care provider (helper) and a systematic process (ritual)
Reasons people seek services:
- Removing, modifying or controlling distressing psychological states
- Changing undesirable behavior patterns
- Promoting positive personal growth and greater meaning in one’s life

Question 31

Q

Philippe Pinel

Answer

A

-Late 18th Century

Argued for humane treatment of the mentally ill
- Chained, put in spinning baskets, doused with cold water, blood lettings, harsh treatment, exorcisms
Replaced with more humane treatments
- Bathing, mild purgatives (laxatives)
Separated patients by severity of their behavior
Inspired others conditions improved

Question 32

Q

Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Lynde Dix

Answer

A

Benjamin Rush:
Mental Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind
Encouraged more humane treatment
- Fresh air, sunlight, walks
- Treat with dignity, not for amusement
Dorothea Lynde Dix:
Noticed that many incarcerated women were struggling with mental illness
Toured cross-country (18 states)
- Also worked in Europe
Brought about institutional reform

Question 33

Q

Emil Kraepelin

Answer

A

First to systematically study the effects of drugs on various cognitive and behavioral functions
- Father of Psychopharmacology
Arguably one of his most important contributions…
- Wanted to classify mental illnesses
- Published first thorough list of mental disorders
- Inspiration for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Question 34

Q

History of the DSM

Answer

A

DSM-I (1952)
DSM-II (1968)
DSM-III (1980)
DSM-III-R (1987)
DSM-IV (1994)
DSM-IV-TR (2000)
DSM-5 (2013)
- Corresponds to the ICD

Question 35

Q

Lightner Witmer

Answer

A

Founded the first psychological clinic
Founded the journal Psychological Clinic
Coined the term “clinical psychology”
Founded residential schools for troubled youth
Lasting contributions
- Principles of experimental/scientific psychology can be used to help troubled individuals
- This help can be provided through a special profession (clinical psychology) that is independent of both medicine and education
- A commitment that clinical psychology should be highly research oriented and be closely allied with basic psychology
- Inspiration for the Boulder Conference (1949)
  - Scientist-practitioner model (if practicing, you should be researching, or at least know about the research that has happened/is happening)
  - Clinicians hold a Ph. D.
  - We will visit this in more detail later (chapter 20)

Question 36

Q

Medical vs. Psychological Model

Answer

A

-Thomas Szasz: The Myth of Mental Illness (1974)

Argued:
Unless an illness is neurophysiological, it isn’t an illness
Mental illness reflects social, political, or moral judgment (problems of living and conformity)
Mental illness is a mislabel
- Labeling absolves responsibility for solving one’s problems
- Justifies the “sick role”

-Still debated today

Question 37

Q

Franz Anton Mesmer

Answer

A

*Hypnotism
Human body contained a magnetic force field; can manipulate force field to influence mental health
Used magnets to treat patients with unevenly distributed force fields
- Patients knew what was expected to occur
- The power of suggestion?
- Eventually used his own hands to heal
  - Mesmer felt he was strong with the force (to quote Yoda)
Left Vienna for dubious curative claims, but gained popularity in Paris (popular on purpose)
- Treated groups of patients with his magnetic force
- Phenomena of the contagion effect
  - Patients who would not respond to suggestion when alone with a physician, readily do so after seeing others response

-Eventually discredited, but mesmerism did not fade away – became popular in the United States

Question 38

Q

Marquis De Puysegur

Answer

A

-*Hypnotism

Developed artificial somnambulism
- Trance-like state under which an individual responds to commands
Observed phenomena commonly associated with hypnosis today
- Highly suggestable
- Paralysis of various sensations (ex: right arm is paralyzed)
- Posthypnotic amnesia (don’t remember what happened when they wake up)
- Posthypnotic suggestions (ex: bark like dog)
  - Will engage in an action that was suggested while under hypnosis
  - Example: Hypnosis to quit smoking (feel sick in stomach)
  - Example: Hypnosis for weight loss
  - Studies are mixed on the efficacy of this as a treatment option

Question 39

Q

Jean-Martin Charcot

Answer

A

-*Hypnotism

That being hypnotizable meant one was suffering from mental pathology (hysteria)
- The Nancy School – hypnotizability was normal for everyone
- Eventually saw his perspective was wrong
Hypnotism as a form of treatment of the effects of trauma
- Trauma causes dissociation of ideas from conscious awareness
- They become strong enough to cause hysterical symptoms

-This leads us to the idea of repressed memories, which will be covered in Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis (Freud studied with Charot)

Question 40

Q

First School

Answer

A

-*Hypnotism

The Nancy (naw-see) School
- Founded by Ambroise Auguste Liébeault
- Grew out of his work with hypnosis in his medical practice
- Others came to train with him
Currently, no formal school for or degree in hypnosis, but certification programs exist
- Certification Requirements
  - Licensed professionals in health care, mental health care, and pastoral counseling; graduate level degree
  - Courses and supervised clinical hours

Question 41

Q

Current Programs and Organization

Answer

A

-*Hypnotism

National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists
- National Board Certified Clinical Hypnotherapist
Other Certification Programs and Organizations
- American College of Hypnotherapy
- American Society of Clinical Hypnosis
- Society for Clinical Experimental Hypnosis
- American Council of Hypnotist Examiners
- International Hypnosis Federation

Question 42

Q

Sigmund Freud - Important Considerations

Answer

A

Importance of historical context
- Zeitgeist of his time
  - Zeitgeist: The defining spirit/mood of a particular historical period as shown by that era’s beliefs and ideas
- Influence on his theoretical concepts
Importance of family context
- Freud’s relationship with his parents (his mom put all her time and energy; interesting family network); relationship with parents influence his theoretical concepts)
- Influence on his theoretical concepts
Importance of his choices
- Freud was an MD with a known addiction to nicotine
- Experimentation with cocaine
- Led to the death of a colleague (tried to use cocaine to treat a morphine addiction)
- Compromised his reputation

Question 43

Q

Freud, Breuer, & Anna O.

Answer

A

Freud & Breuer – friends and colleagues
- Freud was influenced by Breuer’s work with Anna O.
Anna O.:
- Symptoms of hysteria (e.g., temporary paralysis, memory loss, mental disorientation); high anxiety
- Used hypnosis to trace her symptoms to an earlier trauma (e.g., death of her father)
- Awareness eased symptoms – Cathartic Method
- She called it the “talking cure”
Transference experienced by Anna O.
- Transference: you start to act towards therapist as though they’re the source of issue (ex: You’re just like my mother.” and they lash out)
Countertransference experienced by Breuer
- Countertransference: therapist reacts (ex: “How could you say that? How dare you!”)

Question 44

Q

Hypnosis and Psychoanalysis (Freud)

Answer

A

Hypnosis (not his cup of tea):
Influenced by Charcot and the Nancy School
Found use of hypnosis to be inconsistent (results were hit or miss)
Developed technique of free association (let patient just talk)
- Used in response to resistance (Def: when the patient stops short of realizing a traumatic event); when they start getting uncomfortable, getting too close to the issue
Needed to retrieve information from the unconscious
Psychoanalysis:
Assemble the fragmented material of the unconscious; therapy technique to get things out of unconscious
Symptoms are a symbolic representation of unconscious conflicts
- Repressed experiences or conflicts that do not go away
Work with patients with hysteria
- Led to “The Seduction Theory” – hysteria symptoms rooted in a previous sexual attack
- Later evidence caused him to abandon the idea

Question 45

Q

Dream Work (Freud)

Answer

A

The Royal Road to the Unconscious”:
Hysterical symptoms and dreams are symbolic manifestations of repressed traumatic thoughts
Manifest vs. latent content
- Manifest: What it appears to be on the surface
- Latent: What it is really about (the underlying themes)
- Examples: Dreams about flight
Dreams as wish fulfillment:
Dreams allow expression of desires without the anxiety
Symbolism serves as a disguise; symbolism is protective layer (allows you to think about it, but not directly)

Question 46

Q

Parapraxes (Freud)

Answer

A

There are no “accidents”; everything is on purpose
- Forgetting an appointment
- Losing something
- Mistakes in writing
- Freudian slips
  - Principal Skinner Example

-All done unconsciously

Question 47

Q

Topography of the Mind (Freud)

Answer

A

The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary memories.
Ego (executive mediator) - top of iceberg
Superego (internalized details) - middle of iceberg
Id (unconscious psychic energy) - bottom of iceberg

Typography:

Conscious mind - at top (what you’re currently aware of; ex: in class, learning)
Preconscious - in middle (outside awareness but accessible; holding place for memories that can be brought out)
Unconscious mind - at bottom (not aware)

Question 48

Q

Structural Model

Answer

A

-Freud

Id:
- Operates on the pleasure principle
- Unconsciously strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress
- Collective “Id Energy” = Libido
- Runs amuck; doesn’t care; hedonistic; impulsive; death
- Ex: of devil on Homer’s shoulder
Ego:
- Operates on a reality principle
- Seeks to realistically gratify id’s impulses
- Contains perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories
- Anxiety: When Ego feels overwhelmed by the Id
- Tries to temer id and superego
Superego:
- Focuses on ideal behavior
- Strives for perfections
- Acts as a moral conscious
- Can be overly punishing
- Ex: of angel on Homer’s shoulder

Question 49

Q

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Freud)

Answer

A

1. Regression
1. Reaction Formation
1. Projection
1. Rationalization
1. Displacement
1. Denial
None of these are helpful; all create barrier

Question 50

Q

Regression

Answer

A

Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
Ex: a little boy reverts to the oral comfort of thumb sucking in the car on the way to his first day of school

Question 51

Q

Reaction Formation

Answer

A

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

- Ex: Repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness

Question 52

Q

Projection

Answer

A

Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
Ex: “The thief thinks everyone else is a thief” (an El Salvadoran saying)

Question 53

Q

Rationalization

Answer

A

Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions
Ex: A habitual drinker says she drinks with her friends “just to be sociable.”

Question 54

Q

Displacement

Answer

A

Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
A little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room
Also called sublimation (channeling your feelings onto something else)
Ex: of Homer Simpson

Question 55

Q

Denial

Answer

A

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

- Ex: A partner denies evidence of his loved one’s affair

Question 56

Q

Personality Development (Freud)

Answer

A

-During these stages, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones

Freud’s Psycosexual Stages:
1. Oral (0-18 months)
  - Pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing, smoking
1. Anal (18-36 months)
  - Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
1. Phallic (3-6 years)
  - Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings; oedipal complex
1. Latency (6 to puberty)
  - Dormant sexual feelings
1. Genital (puberty on)
  - Maturation of sexual interests

-Phallic stage and oedipal complex - the male child castration anxiety; the female child and penis envy

Question 57

Q

Fixation and Personality Development (Freud)

Answer

A

-Strong conflict can fixate an individual at earlier stages

Oral fixation
- Oral receptive personality – reduces stress through eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails
- Oral aggressive personality – hostile and verbally abusive to others (sarcastic, rude, abusive)
Anal fixation
- Anal retentive personality – stingy, stubborn, perfectionistic; compulsive about order and tidiness
- Anal expulsive personality – lack of self-control; messy and careless; generous

-*Fixation = hurdles

Question 58

Q

Neo-Freudians

Answer

A

Agreed with Freud about childhood importance
Believed social, not sexual, tensions were important in personality formation
Notable figures include
- Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Stages of Development - conflict at different points in life)
- Carl Jung
- Alfred Adler
- Karen Horney

Question 59

Q

Carl Jung - The Personal and Collective Unconscious and Archetypes

Answer

A

Conscious and Unconscious:
Ego is the conscious mind
Personal Unconscious
- Your experiences – repressed and forgotten
- Material from your lifetime
Collective Unconscious
- aka: Archetypes
- Definition: Models of people, behaviors, and personalities
- Innate, universal, and hereditary
4 Basic Archetypes:
The Self: Unification of unconscious and conscious
The Shadow: Repressed ideas, weakness, desires, shortcomings; part of unconscious mind; darker side
The Anima/Animus
- Anima: Female counterpart to male personality; how males can interact with females
- Animus: Male counterpart to the female personality; how females can interact with males
- How we interact with opposite sex
The Persona: How we present ourselves to the world; the “mask”
- Different depending on who you’re with
Archetypes influence our emotions and how we relate to the world

Question 60

Q

Alfred Adler

Answer

A

Complexes:
Inferiority
- Can be a motivating factor: Positive growth
- Can be a disabling force: Can lead to sense of inadequacy
  - Inferiority Complex
Superiority
- Can result from feelings of inferiority
- Person overcompensates and places too much emphasis on striving for perfection
  - Superiority Complex
Birth Order:
First = leader, achiever, organized, responsible, adult-pleaser, rule follower, etc.
Middle = flexible, easy-going, social, peacemaker, independent, strong negotiator, generous, etc.
Last = risk-taker, outgoing, creative, competitive, enjoys being pampered, sense of humor, etc.
Only = close to parents, leader, mature, dependable, demanding, private, sensitive, etc.

Question 61

Q

Karen Horney

Answer

A

Stressed the importance of the parent-child relationship
Social interactions, not intrapsychic conflicts, are the causes mental illness; interaction matters (especially parent-child interaction)
Basic hostility & basic anxiety
- Hostility: Experienced toward parents; becomes a worldview
- Anxiety: Repression of the hostility
Coping with anxiety
- Moving toward people
  - To seek help and acceptance
  - Compliant type
- Moving against people
  - To force your power onto others in hopes of feeling good about yourself
  - Hostile type
  - Push people away
  - Ex: reject them before they reject you
- Moving away from people
  - To distance oneself from others to keep from being hurt
  - Detached type
  - Health people adjust these patterns as needed; neurotic people get stuck in one

Question 62

Q

Humanistic (Third-Force) Psychology. Why third force?

Answer

A

By mid-20th century, structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology’s popularity waned
Only psychoanalysis (1st force) and behaviorism (2nd force) remained influential
By 1960’s
- Maslow and others felt those two viewpoints were limited – focus on mind and body only
- Wanted to include the human spirit (3rd force)
Gave rise to:
- Existential Psychology
- Humanistic Psychology

Question 63

Q

Existential Psychology: Martin Heidegger

Answer

A

Humans are always becoming something other than what they were
To “be” means to “exist;” To “exist” is to “change”
The Authentic Life (living an authentic life):
- Exercise your freedom to create a meaningful existence because life is short (death is inevitable; accept death, live your life, take responsibility)
- Living life with excitement and a sense of urgency
- Allows for personal growth (becoming)
- Freedom means taking responsibility for one’s life
- Must act within the circumstances of our lives – thrownness
  - Your inherent looks, your socioeconomic status, your ethnicity, etc.
- Refusing to accept this fact may lead to living an inauthentic life
- Gives up personal freedom and lives a life dictated by others
- One becomes stagnant
- Results in guilt and anxiety

-Ideal: move people forward to live authentic life

Question 64

Q

Existential Psychology: Rollo May

Answer

A

The human dilemma:
Humans are objects and subjects of experience (dual aspect of human nature)
- Objects – we exist
- Subjects – we interpret, value, and make choices regarding our experiences
- Within this dilemma (objects and subjects), we’re trying to be free
Freedom brings responsibility and anxiety
- Normal anxiety is conducive to personal growth (stress that’s good for you; ex: stressed about planning trip, but it’s motivating)
  - Healthy person exercises freedom to approach one’s full potential
  - Exercising free will may leads to normal anxiety
- Neurotic anxiety is not conducive to personal growth (try to take people from this to normal anxiety)
  - Person conforms to tradition, dogma, etc. and reduces the need to make personal choices (self-alienation)
  - Giving up free will leads to existential guilt

Answer 65

A

A way to make sense of the world
Narrative patterns that give significance to our existence
Four functions (events in life are myths and that gives you the 4 functions):
- Provide a sense of identity
- Provide a sense of community*
- Support our moral values
- Provide a means of dealing with the mysteries of creation
*Most important according to May
Not all myths are healthy

Answer 66

A

Main goals of Existential Therapy
- To explore why the client is not living an authentic life
- Make choices that lead to reaching one’s full potential
  - Create new meaning
- Help clients take responsibility in their lives
  - Client blames others for their predicament
  - Therapist asks how he/she contributed to the predicament
Narrative Therapy
- Explores the client’s myths
- Understanding and evaluating the effectiveness of one’s stories

-Existential therapy is more a mindset than specific techniques

Answer 67

A

1. Little of value can be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals
1. Subjective reality is the primary guide for human behavior
1. Studying individuals is more informative than studying what groups of individuals have in common
1. *A major effort should be made to discover those things that expand and enrich human experience
1. Research should seek information that will help solve human problems
1. The goal of psychology should be to formulate a complete description of what it means to be a human being
Trying to look at you as a whole and help you reach your potential

Answer 68

A

1. Self-transcendence needs
  - Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self
1. Self-actualization needs
  - Need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
1. Esteem needs
  - Needs for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others; people recognize your efforts
1. Belongingness and love needs
  - Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation; need to be loved AND to love
1. Safety needs
  - Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
1. Physiological needs
  - Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
Self-Actualization:
Reaching one’s full, human potential
Characteristics:
- Perceive reality accurately and fully
- Demonstrate great acceptance of self and others
- Need for privacy
- Have a few friends
- Tend to be creative, etc.
Criticisms:
Can meet higher needs even if lower ones are not completely fulfilled
Hierarchy varies across cultures
Behavior is not motivated by a single need on the hierarchy; behavior is motivated by a myriad of needs

Answer 69

A

Organismic Valuing Process
- Our tendency toward self-actualization
- Innate
- We select goals based on our inner nature and purpose
Process can include:
- Authenticity – being yourself
- Autonomy – avoiding “shoulds” and making your own decisions
- Internal locus of evaluation – judgment based on one’s own views rather than seeking approval from others
- Unconditional positive self-regard – judging yourself as valuable and worthwhile
- Process living – recognizing life is a constant state of becoming; always evolving
- Relatedness – seeking close and deep personal relationships
- Openness to inner and outer experience – being able to perceive and accept how others and oneself behaves and feels
Conditions of Worth (How are you valuing yourself?)
- Conditional positive regard
  - Stunts organismic valuing process
  - Ex: I’ll be your friend if you let me drive your car
- Unconditional positive regard
  - Allows one to become a fully functioning person
  - Valued for who you are
  - Ex: I’ll love you no matter what

-Congruence and Incongruence

Real Self vs. Ideal Self
- Ideal Self: May be set up by others (in conditional, positive regard)
Empathic Understanding and Personal Growth
- Cornerstone of health relationships
- Empathy: I understand your situation and relate it back to them; explain to them how you understand

Answer 70

A

Treatment Goals:

- Help clients achieve greater independence and integration
- Help clients achieve-self-acceptance
- Help clients achieve authentic ways of being

Treatment Approach:
- Therapists must be genuine, present, accepting, congruent, and empathetic
- More a philosophy than a set of techniques
- The therapeutic relationship is the intervention
*”It is the client who knows what hurts, what direction to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been deeply buried.” – On Becoming a Person
More of a cooperation

Answer 71

A

-The scientific study of human strengths and virtues

What constitutes
- A pleasant life
- An engaged life
- A meaningful life
Focus on character strengths, optimism, happiness, well-being, compassion, self-esteem, hope, self-confidence, etc.
We need to talk about the good

Answer 72

A

-Psychobiological research

Biological bases of behavior
- Central nervous system
- Brain structures
- Neurons
- Neurotransmitters

-Beginnings of neuroscience

Answer 73

A

Cell body: cell’s life-support center
Dendrites: receive messages from other cells
Axon: passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Terminal branches of axon: form junctions with other cells
Myelin Sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
Neural impulses: (action potential) electrical signal traveling down the axon
Cytoplasm is the fluid that fills the neurons (and all cells)
Neurons in CNS (brain and spinal cord)

Answer 74

A

Provide nutritional support
Removes waste (e.g., ions, neurotransmitters)
Construct myelin
Like the glue of the brain
Provide structure

Answer 75

A

-Chemical messengers that travel from cell body to the terminal branches

Answer 76

A

Acetylcholine (ACh): enables muscle action, learning, and memory; with alzheimer’s disease; ACh-producing neurons deteriorate
Dopamine: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors and loss of motor control in Parkinson’s disease
Serotonin: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression; some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
Norepinephrine: helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
Glutamate: a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food)

Answer 77

A

Failed Search for the Engram
- Group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”
- Lesioned rat brains to erase the engram, but they were still able to successfully run the maze
- No evidence of the engram, but his studies led to the concepts of…
Mass Action
- Loss of ability related to amount of destruction rather than the location of destruction
- Cortex appeared to work as a unified whole (Gestalt)
- Quantity is what is important; amount vs. location that equates to how important it might be
Equipotentiality
- To remove a function, the entire area of brain responsibility for that function must be destroyed
- Any remaining parts will still allow the function to occur; any remaining parts will be able to function

Answer 78

A

Every environmental object we experience fires a complex package of neurons
- Neurons that fire together, wire together, and survive together
Neural interconnections develop with experience
- Reverberating neural activity allows neurons to become associated
- Pathways
- When a cell assembly fires, experience the thought of that environmental object
Cell assemblies become neurologically integrated to form phase sequences
- Phase sequences = several connected cell assemblies; phase sequence putting together cell assemblies
- Results in a stream of thought

Answer 79

A

Learning:
Childhood
- Slow buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences
- They accumulate over time
- Adulthood
- The rearranging of existing cell assemblies and phase sequences
- Characterized by creativity and insight
Other Findings:
Animals reared in enriched sensory environments are better learners as adults
Arousal theory (activity in the reticular activating system as related to cognitive and behavioral performance)

Answer 80

A

Original Work with Animals
- Ablation of the corpus callosum and optic chiasm
- No information exchange between hemispheres
- Further understanding the two hemispheres are specialized
In Humans for Medical Reasons
- Work of Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
- Severing of the corpus callosum
- Used to cease propagation of a seizure from one hemisphere to the other
- Lead to better understanding of hemispheric specialization
- Cautionary note regarding brain plasticity

Answer 81

A

Left:
- Analytical thought
- Detail oriented perception
- Ordered sequencing
- Rational thought
- Verbal
- Cautious
- Planning
- Math science
- Logic
- Right field vision
- Right side motor skills
Right:
- Intuitive thought
- Holistic perception
- Random sequencing
- Emotional thought
- Non-verbal
- Adventurous
- Impulse
- Creative writing/Art
- Imagination
- Left field vision
- Left side motor skills

Answer 82

A

Band of fibers (association cortices) that connect the two hemispheres
- Hemispheres are contralateral
  - Controls opposite side of body
  - Aware of the visual field on the opposite side

-Without it, the two hemispheres cannot communicate

Answer 83

A

-The LH is the one that does verbal language, and that hemisphere is processing the right visual field. All it can verbally report is “ART”

Answer 84

A

The study of the mind as an information processor; how brain processes information
Includes such mental processes as attention, language, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking
Human Experimental Psychology:
- Memory, attention, problem-solving, language
Computer Analogies, Information Processing Approach:
- Artificial intelligence
- Computer simulation
Cognitive Neuroscience:
- Brain damage and effect on cognition

Answer 85

A

Studied errors in cognition made by children in order to understand in what ways they think differently than adults
As cognitive structures mature via experience, interactions with the environment become more complex and adaptive
Stressed the importance of play and cognitive development
“Play is the work of childhood”

Answer 86

A

A basic mental structure into which information one receives from the environment is organized
Earlier schemas set the stage for constructing new and more sophisticated schema
Never stop changing and are constantly refined through a process of adaptation
Schemas can take the form of images, models, and/or concepts
Never-ending process
Schema has to adjust when you’re learning new things

Answer 87

A

-Schema (boy has learned schema of cat) → Assimilation (boy saw a cub and called it “cat.” Sister said, “No, it’s a cub.”) → Accommodation (he saw accommodates new schema of cub)

Answer 88

A

1. Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years)
  - Children experience the world through senses and actions; big leap
1. Preoperational (2 years to 6-7 years)
  - Children represent things with words and images, but lack logical thinking
1. Concrete Operational (7 years to 11 years)
  - Children can think logically about concrete events and can perform arithmetic operations, but have problems with abstract thought; can’t think hypothetically yet
1. Formal Operational (12 years though adulthood)
  - Individuals can logically explore both concrete and abstract concepts. They can systematically think about all possibilities, project into the future or recall the past, and reason by analogy and metaphor; can think hypothetically

-Following slides will highlight the features of each stage

Answer 89

A

Learn through sensory and motor experiences
Major Milestone (big leap): Object Permanence
Object Permanence Failure
Family Guy Example
Perseveration Error: learn they can look for things, but if you change it, they think it’s gone again, which is object permanence in progress

Answer 90

A

Ability to think in symbols
- Importance to reading and numerical skills
Non-logical, magical thinking
Pretend Play
Animism (put human concepts onto inanimate objects
Language Development
Lack Conservation
- Centration/Egocentrism (Tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem; have trouble seeing other perspectives; ex: “Is Brian your brother?” “Yes.” “Does Brian have a brother?” “No.” But he does)
- Static Reasoning (Thinks nothing changes)
- Focus on Appearance (Physical appearance is also its essence)
- Irreversibility (Nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred)

Answer 91

A

Tempers egocentricity
The ability to understand that others have their own thoughts and perspectives; realize other people have other thoughts/perspectives
Perspective taking
Have empathy if someone is hurt
Learn they can lie

Answer 92

A

Logical thinking, but concrete in nature
- “You made your bed, now go lie in it.”
Major milestone: Conservation
- Understanding that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
- The ability to reverse (reversibility) one’s thinking, so to speak
- Mathematical transformations

-Don’t understand hypothetical, abstract thinking

Answer 93

A

-Move from a concrete to an abstract thinker

New abilities
- Hypothetical thinking
- Abstract thinking
  - Understanding metaphors
- Problem solving and decision making
  - Anticipating consequences
- Metacognition
  - Similar to Norbert Wiener’s concept of Cybernetics (Maintenance of balance via feedback systems (e.g., thermostat))
  - Ability to think about your thought process
- Potential for more mature moral reasoning

Answer 94

A

Biological model of language development
Language acquisition is “wired” into the species (inborn); species pre-wired to learn language
Language Acquisition Device
- Biological device with a critical period
- Used to explain a child’s ability to quickly and efficiently learn the rules of grammar
- Children not exposed to language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language
Other biological evidence
- Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas
- Children universally follow the same sequence in language development
Criticism
- Doesn’t explain how we keep up with the fast-changing nature of language
- 2018 Additions to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary – “If beer is more your thing, you might be a hophead heading to a brewery to taste a flight. Blended words, sometimes called portmanteau words, are also in the new list: a dish of zoodles and a mocktail might improve your mood if you’re hangry.”

Answer 95

A

Operant Model (Skinner):
“Infants need to be taught”
Involves such leaning principles as association, imitation, and reinforcement
- Children respond to the reinforcement they get for making speech sounds
- Language is acquired through imitation of adult speech
- Children only learn the language spoken around them
Criticism
- Doesn’t explain why children make grammar errors e.g., goed vs. went
- Learn language because rewarded for using it
Social Pragmatic Model:
”Social impulses foster infant language”
Infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings; social connections
The emotional messages of speech, not the words, are the focus of early communication
The social context of speech is universal, which is why babies learn whatever specifics their culture provides
Evolution of message matters

Answer 96

A

All theories/models offer insight into language acquisition
A combination of these theories is what’s recognized
Hybrid Theory of Language Learning
- Also known as “The Interactionist Approach”
- Language learning is biological and social (which includes learning principles)

-In summary: Language is a complex construct and early exposure in a caring/nurturing environment is key

Answer 97

A

Classic covert participant observation study
Infiltrated a UFO cult (“The Seekers”) that believed a great flood was coming and they, as true believers, would be rescued by aliens in a flying saucer from the planet “Clarion”
Cult members were totally committed to the belief
Aliens never came as predicted by the cult leader
Cult members adjusted their belief: “The little group, sitting all night long, had spread so much light that God had saved the world from the destruction.”; dissonance caused them to create new story
Goal of the study was to study the anxiety that would result when the prophecy failed – resulted in the term “cognitive dissonance”

Answer 98

A

Cognitive Dissonance
- The state of holding two or more conflicting cognitions simultaneously
- People have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements
- Similar to Freud’s ego defense mechanism of rationalization
Examples:
- A person who enjoys smoking (behavior) knows it can cause cancer (cognition)…This causes dissonance
- Resolved by stating that he/she needs it to “calm the nerves”

-Problem: An individual can come to believe their own “lie” and “double-down” when confronted with the dissonance (the truth)

Answer 99

A

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Studies
Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE)
Both share important contributions to social psychology research
Both share important contributions to ethics in research with regard to protecting human subjects (i.e., informed consent, deception, debriefing)

Answer 100

A

Recent discovery of documents and audiotapes found in Yale archives
“Authority” figures often went off script and became more coercive
Some subjects may have known the learner was faking
In other various of the study, fewer, if any, people obeyed
Puts question to the external validity of the studies

Answer 101

A

Ecological validity
- Criticized that mock prison and short time period could result in such extreme depersonalization
Participant bias selection
- Dispositional aggression higher and dispositional empathy lower among those who volunteer for prison study as compared to a nondescript psychological study (Carnahan & McFarland, 2007)
Demand characteristics
- Students were most likely able to guess the purpose of the study (Banuazizi & Movahedi, 1975)
Zimbardo’s dual role
- Principal investigator and prison superintendent
- May have influenced the behavior of participants early in the study (i.e., the guard orientation)
Variance in guard behavior
- Few SPE guards actually embraced the “bad guard” role
- More were unwilling to adopt such roles

Answer 102

A

8-day period
Random assignment to prisoner and guard roles
Discrepant results
- No abusive (guard) or submissive (prisoner) behaviors (the prisoners revolted and tried to establish a new regime)
- Role adoption depended upon group identification
  - Guards did not form a cohesive group
    - Did not identify with their role
    - Did not their authority
    - Prisoners formed a cohesive group
    - Identified with their role
    - Overtook the guards

-Suggests that it is powerlessness and the failure of groups that makes tyranny psychologically acceptable

Answer 103

A

Aka Observational Learning
A brand of behaviorism more compatible with cognitive and social psychology
One doesn’t have to be rewarded/punished to learn/lose a behavior
Bobo Doll Experiments
Major contribution: You don’t need to be punished directly; you can learn by watching someone
- Ex: learn you need to slow down if you see someone else get ticket

Answer 104

A

An added neurological factor to SLT
Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.
Enables imitation and empathy
Hypothesized deficit area in autism spectrum disorders
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- John Robison (Ingenious Minds)
Ex: see someone run into door, and you flinch
Autistic people have trouble with mirror neurons

Answer 105

A

Antisocial & Prosocial Behavior
- How do popular music and video games influence behavior?
- How does this influence personal responsibility?
- How can we use SLT to improve helping behaviors?
Psychopathy
- How would SLT explain the development of eating disorders in teenage girls?

Answer 106

A

The extent to which machines can replicate the mental powers of humans
Combination of cybernetics, information theory, and computer technology

Answer 107

A

Can machines think?
- Weak AI – can only simulate human mental attributes
  - Searle’s Chinese Room – Computers only manipulate symbols, but no meaning is attached to them
- Strong AI – it is a mind capable of understanding and having mental states
Turing Test: A test to see if a machine can pass for a human
- Annual Turing Test Competitions (Society for the Study of AI)
- No computer has passed it as of October 2018

Answer 108

A

Founded in 1892 by Stanley Hall
In 1944, organized 18 divisions and included psychology as a profession and a means of promoting human welfare
Current Mandate
- Encourage the development and application of psychology
- Promote research in psychology (i.e., methods, application)
- Establish ethics, educational standards, etc.
- Provide professional support (e.g., journals, conferences)

-Currently close to 120,000 members

Comprised of 56 numbered divisions, 54 are active
- Shows the diversity of the field

Answer 109

A

Association for Psychological Science
- Formerly American Psychological Society
Regional
- Eastern Psychological Association
- Midwestern Psychological Association
- New England Psychological Association
- Rocky Mountain Psychological Association
- Southeastern Psychological Association
- Southwestern Psychological Association
- Western Psychological Association
State
American Counselors Association (national, regional, and state)
By Discipline or Interest

Answer 110

A

In other words, science vs. application
- Basic research: theory- focused, hypothesis- testing science driven by a quest for knowledge
- Applied research: problem-solving focus with application to the real world
Tensions from the past continue today
APA stresses they are of equal importance
Is psychology a science?
- Some aspects are scientific and others are not
Should psychology be unified?
- Individual view
- Best that we all “play nice together”

-Acknowledge that this is a very diverse field comprised of a collection of different facts, theories, assumptions, methodologies, and goals

Answer 111

A

Boulder Model
- Clinicians should have a Ph.D. in psychology
Ph.D. Vs. Psy.D.
- Psy.D.: 1968 - U of I; 1968 - California School of Professional Psychology
  - Many other programs soon followed
- Professional/independent school (e.g., CSPP, Argosy) vs. traditional programs (e.g., Indiana State University, Wheaton College)
  - Controversy over professional/independent schools
- Same academic process with a few differences
- Same licensure exam: Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP)
  - EPPP is currently being revised
- Same opportunities for board certification: American Board of Assessment Psychology (ABAP) (Board certified means you got your license, and a few years later, you take ABAP and earn another credential; not mandatory)

Answer 112

A

The battle for a service and an identity
- Psychology vs. Psychiatry

-Post-doctoral Masters Degree in Clinical Psychopharmacology

New Mexico, Louisiana, Illinois, Iowa, Idaho, Oregon, New Jersey(?)
- With restrictions (ex: can’t prescribe to children, pregnant women, etc.)

-What are the advantages of psychologists having prescription privileges?