Test 3 (Final)

Question 1

Gestalt Psychology: A New Perspective

Answer 1

-Revolt from then dominant empirical psychology (e.g., behaviorism, elementism)

-Focus on an application of field theory to
Psychology
-Physicists: How interacting elements combine to create an overall pattern or force
-Gestaltists: The brain is a configuration of forces that transform sensory information into something meaningful

• Major figures include Wertheimer, Koffka & Köhler, who ask a major question…
• How do separate, attended to stimuli become an experienced whole? When looking at its parts, how do you know what it is?

Question 2

Psychophysical Isomorphism & the Law of Pragnanz

Answer 2

• Law of Pragnanz
  
  • The brain has a tendency to construct meaning that represents the simplest, most stable, and most regular and symmetrical understanding of the world
  • In other words, we like to create simplicity and order in what we experience
  • Your brain is about keeping things organized and simple, so it’s easily understood
• The brain transforms sensory information into a conscious/mental experience (Psychophysical Isomorphism)
  
  • A pattern of energy from a sensory signal will generate a similar pattern of energy in the brain
  • However, it won’t be a perfect one-to-one correspondence due to the Law of Pragnanz
  • Textbook example of the actual topography of the United States and that depicted in a map
• Brain analyzes and organizes these activities from the top (whole) to the bottom (parts)
  
  • The “whole” applies meaning to all those parts (in this chapter particularly with perception); brain drives meaning

Question 3

Gestalt Perception: Terminology

Answer 3

• Perceptual constancy
• The figure/ground relationship
• Principle of continuity
• Principle of proximity
• Principle of inclusiveness
• Principle of similarity
• Principle of closure

Question 4

Perceptual Constancy

Answer 4

-Familiar objects have a standard shape, size, color, etc.

• We still recognize the object despite changes in angle of perspective, distance, or lighting
  
  • Ex: of door (no matter how far away it is, the way light is hitting it, its position/orientation, you still know what it is)
• Due to ongoing brain activity and NOT the result of sensation and learning (empiricists)
• Textbook gave example with brightness
• Ex with joystick toy-looking thing:
• Figures in “A” are all basically the same shape despite rotation
• Figures in “A” are distinguishable from those in figure “B”
• Figures in “C” and “D” are recognized from “A” despite perspective, elastic deformations, and differing graphic

-*You want your dentist, doctor, and surgeon to be really good at this

Question 5

Figure-Ground Relationship

Answer 5

• Visual: ability to see an object in a busy background
• Auditory: ability to pick out a voice or sound from a noisy environment
• Your ability to pick out what to focus on and ignore the rest
• Terminology:
  
  • Figure = object of attention
  • Ground = that which is not attended to
• Helps you:
  
  • Find your favorite socks in a messy drawer
  • FInd a specific book on a bookshelf
  • Tell your mom’s voice from another woman’s voice
• Poor skills mean:
  
  • Can’t find information on a busy blackboard
  • Lose place while reading
  • Difficulty finding personal items in a cluttered place
• Ex of finding ladybug in picture
• Ex of finding hidden face in image of tiger

Question 6

Principle of Continuity

Answer 6

• The mind continues the pattern even if some of it is interrupted
  
  • Visual
  • Auditory (ex: of playing scale, they stop, but you know how it would’ve ended)
  • Kinesthetic (ex: of golf players – you don’t see them swing, but you can imagine the movement)

-Most people would say they see two crossed, wavy lines or that the lines continue behind the tree (above)

Question 7

Principle of Proximity

Answer 7

• When stimuli are close together, they tend to be grouped together
• If bad at it, may result in challenges with reading, writing, and mathematics (e.g., spatial errors)

Question 8

Principle of Inclusiveness

Answer 8

• When there is more than one figure, we see the figure that contains the greatest amount of stimuli
• We tend to see the larger figure, not the smaller ones
• This explains how camouflage works
  
  • Looking at whole field, so ignore the smaller components that would differentiate it

Question 9

Principle of Similarity

Answer 9

• Similar objects will form perceptual units
• Ex: With similar spacing, do the letters seem more like four rows or four columns? (x’s and o’s)
• Features that look similar are seen as related
• Used to create repetitive patterns that are pleasing to the eye
  
  • Ex: of The Beatles “A Hard Day’s Night” album cover

Question 10

Principle of Closure

Answer 10

• Incomplete figures are perceived as complete figures
• Ability to perceive the whole image when only part of it is available
• Impacts reading and math
  
  • Reading: Can recognize words without having to decode them; improves reading speed
  • Math: Can recognize quantities without counting; we can see a number of objects and know how many there are (ex: guessing how many gumballs in a jar throughout different images)

-Comics (and graphic novels) require you to fill in the gaps between frames (keep storyline in your head)

Question 11

Neuropsychology and Visual Visual Perceptual Skills

Answer 11

• Example tests:
  
  • Test of visual perceptual skills – 4
  • Developmental test of visual perception – 3
• Vision therapy (helps strengthen numbered areas)
• Eyecanlearn.com
• 1. Visual discrimination (ability to find detail differences in images (Highlight subscription)
• 2. Visual memory
• 3. Visual figure-ground
• 4. Visual-spatial relationships (closely related to visual form constancy (#6); rotated objects ex)
• 5. Visual closure
• 6. Visual form constancy
• 7. Visual sequential memory

Question 12

Gestalt and Learning - Insight

Answer 12

-Evidence of problem solving

• Köhler’s interpretation
• Perceive the situation as a whole
• Understand the relationship between various stimuli
• Problem is presented with the things necessary for the solution
• This equates insight:
• Solutions require:
• Restructuring the perceptual field
• Perceiving a new relationship between the stimuli
• Transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete
• Because the organism learns relationships, not responses (behaviorism) learning can be applied to similar situations
• Transposition = “transfer of training”

Question 13

Kurt Lewin and the Expansion of Gestalt Concepts - Overview

Answer 13

• Used the concept of fields to explain behavior in terms of social influence
• Extended the concepts beyond the aforementioned Gestalt framework
• Concept of the “Life Space”:
• Composed of objective and imagined; “life space” is the whole
• The psychological field of the individual
  - Encompasses all influences acting upon one at a given time
  - Encompasses psychological facts
  - Objective
  - Awareness of internal events (e.g., hunger, fatigue)
  - Awareness of external events (i.e., anything in one’s environment)
  - Recollections of prior experiences (e.g., knowing that your boss tends to be cranky)
  - Imagined
  - Can include subjective beliefs (e.g., being unpopular at work)
  - All of these require awareness in the moment (focus on the present)
• The combination of psychological facts determine behavior in a given situation

Question 14

Motivation

Answer 14

• Equilibrium/Cognitive balance
  - State of balance between the person and the environment
  - Any disturbance of this equilibrium produces tension
  - Leads to an action to relieve the tension and restore balance
• Motivation is a consequence of disequilibrium
• The Zeigarnik Effect
  - Tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed ones
  - Related to the tension caused by leaving a task incomplete
  - Becomes part of the life space
• What psychological conditions could result from the Zeigarnik Effect?
  
  • Anxiety, which could lead to depression

Question 15

Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Approach-Approach Conflict

Answer 15

• Must choose between two or more desirable goals
• Least stressful situation
• Ex: ”Should I vacation in Bora Bora, Tahiti, or Bali, Indonesia?

Question 16

Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Answer 16

• Faced with two goals, both of which are repellent
• Stressful situation
• Idiom: Being between a rock and a hard place
• Ex: “I hate my job, but I can’t quit and lose my income”

Question 17

Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Answer 17

• Mixed feelings about one goal (attracted and repelled)
• Most stressful situation
• Ex: ”I really want to eat this entire box of chocolates, but I know it will give me horrible acid reflux.”

Question 18

Social Psychology

Answer 18

• Research on Group Dynamics
  
  • Behavior in group settings
  • The nature of a group will influence the behavior of its members
  • Influenced development of encounter groups and sensitivity training (like mob mentality)
  • *group = whole; members = parts
• Research on Leadership Styles in Group Settings
  
  • Authoritarian Group (one leader makes decisions for all)
    
    • Yields highly aggressive group members
  • Democratic (leader encourages discussion and participation in decision making)
    
    • Yields more productive and friendly group members
  • Laissez-Faire (no leadership; no group decisions)
    
    • Yields unproductive group

Question 19

A Different Perspective: Gestalt Therapy

Answer 19

-Embraces Holism: Interest in the whole person (i.e., thoughts, feelings, behaviors, body, memories, dreams)

• Therapeutic goals include
  
  • Awareness (how past behaviors interfere with living in the present)
  • Quality contact between the individual and the environment
  • Look at patient as a “whole”
• Similar terminology, different meanings
  
  • Field theory: Individuals must be understood in the context of their environment
  • Figure: Client’s experiences that are most salient in the moment
  • Ground: Aspects of experience out of client’s awareness
• Known theorists: Fritz Perls, Miriam Polster
• The “now” is what’s important
• Took Gestalt Principles and put it into different/bigger ideas

Question 20

Early Considerations of Mental Illness - Terminology

Answer 20

• Past:
  
  • Mad
  • Lunatic
  • Maniac
  • Insane
• Present:
  
  • Psychopathy (mental term for “mental illness”)
  • Psychopathology (study of mental illness)
  • Abnormal Behavior

-Focus is on behavior and cognitive processes as they impact one’s ability to function in social, occupational, and educational settings

Question 21

Common Themes

Answer 21

• 1. Harmful Behavior
     - To self and others (risk of harm to self and others)
     - Examples: Self-harm, suicide, homicide
     - Some cultures define such behaviors as appropriate depending upon the circumstances (e.g., honor killings)
• 2. Unrealistic Thoughts and Perceptions
     
     • Beliefs and perceptions that differ markedly from the norm
     • Represent a break from reality (reality testing is not intact)
     • Example: Delusions (beliefs) and hallucinations (perceptions)
       - Delusion: false belief system (ex: someone thinking their Christ reincarnate; everybody is out to get them; stalkers)
       - Hallucinations: seeing things, hearing things that aren’t there; not always frightening have perceptions that aren’t real (schizophrenics, but they also experience delusions)
• 3. Inappropriate Emotions
     
     • Emotional displays that are incongruent with the circumstance in which they are presented
     • Example: Extreme elation during a manic phase; laughing at a funeral
• 4. Unpredictable Behavior
     
     • Sudden shifts in beliefs and emotions
     • Example: mood swings related to Bipolar Disorder; impulsive reactions due to a paranoid mindset; people with borderline personality disorder)

-Important Note: The behaviors/emotions must always be considered in the context in which they occur and the cultural history must always be incorporated into the conceptualization of psychopathy

Question 22

Current Definition: The 4Ds

Answer 22

• 1. Deviance:
     - From social norms and societal values
     - Specific circumstances or context (want to look at what society considers “normal”)
• 2. Distress:
     - Behavior, ideas, or emotions
     - Has to cause distress before being labeled abnormal
• 3. Dysfunction:
     - Abnormal behavior tends to interfere with daily functioning
• 4. Danger:
     - Dangerous to oneself or others
     - Typically the exception rather than the rule

Question 23

Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Biological Explanations

Answer 23

• “Medical Model”
• All disease is caused by a body-based malfunction
• Examples: congenital defect, injury, illness, genetics, physiological imbalance, toxins

Some psychological disorders are best understood with this model (e.g., schizophrenia)

Question 24

Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Psychological Explanations

Answer 24

• “Psychological Model”
• Psychological events are the cause of abnormal behavior
• Examples: grief, anxiety, fear, disappointment, guilt, conflict

Question 25

Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Special Note

Answer 25

• Biological and psychological explanations of mental illness often exist simultaneously; in reality, they work together
• Example: There are biological and psychological explanations for why someone may experience anxiety or depression
• Example: Diathesis-stress model
  
  • Interaction of a pre-disposed vulnerability and an environmental (life experience) stress
  • Explains why an individual with a genetic predisposition for a specific condition (e.g., substance abuse) may not experience it due to life in a healthy environment (genetic predisposition towards something, but whether it shows up or not depends on environment)

Question 26

Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Supernatural Explanations

Answer 26

• Popular during the Middle Ages
• Mental and physical disorders are inflicted on people by mysterious forces (e.g., immortal beings)
• Example: seizure disorders, demonic possession, and exorcism

Question 27

Supernatural Approaches

Answer 27

-Coax out invading (evil) forces

• Ritual approach
  
  • Appeals and bribery
  • Exorcism
  • Incantations
• Other techniques to let out invading forces
  
  • Bleedings
  • Trepanation (removing a portion of the skull)

Question 28

Early Biological Approaches

Answer 28

• Hippocrates and Galen (tried to be more practical)
• Ailments were a function of the body
• Natural remedies prescribed
  
  • Fresh air
  • Baths
  • Special diets
  • Rest
• Soon followed by a return to the supernatural with religious overtones
• Abnormal behavior = sinfulness and witchcraft
• Start of witch hunts and inquisitions
• Continued through the Renaissance

Question 29

Early Psychological Approaches

Answer 29

-18th Century

• Belief in natural law
  
  • You get what you deserve
• Mental illness was a punishment for a sinful life
• Alleviate suffering by changing one’s ways (start of thinking that one needs to change behavior)
• Start of psychotherapy
• Therapist’s role:
  
  • Help with behavior change
• Various techniques
  
  • Reenacting trauma
  • Dream analysis

Question 30

What is Psychotherapy?

Answer 30

• Book definition: An attempt to help a person with mental illness
• Technical definition: A series of techniques from various theoretical orientations designed to ameliorate the symptoms of psychopathy
• Involves the client/patient, the care provider (helper) and a systematic process (ritual)
• Reasons people seek services:
  
  • Removing, modifying or controlling distressing psychological states
  • Changing undesirable behavior patterns
  • Promoting positive personal growth and greater meaning in one’s life

Question 31

Philippe Pinel

Answer 31

-Late 18th Century

• Argued for humane treatment of the mentally ill
  
  • Chained, put in spinning baskets, doused with cold water, blood lettings, harsh treatment, exorcisms
• Replaced with more humane treatments
  
  • Bathing, mild purgatives (laxatives)
• Separated patients by severity of their behavior
• Inspired others conditions improved

Question 32

Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Lynde Dix

Answer 32

• Benjamin Rush:
• Mental Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind
• Encouraged more humane treatment
  
  • Fresh air, sunlight, walks
  • Treat with dignity, not for amusement
• Dorothea Lynde Dix:
• Noticed that many incarcerated women were struggling with mental illness
• Toured cross-country (18 states)
  
  • Also worked in Europe
• Brought about institutional reform

Question 33

Emil Kraepelin

Answer 33

• First to systematically study the effects of drugs on various cognitive and behavioral functions
  
  • Father of Psychopharmacology
• Arguably one of his most important contributions…
  
  • Wanted to classify mental illnesses
  • Published first thorough list of mental disorders
  • Inspiration for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Question 34

History of the DSM

Answer 34

• DSM-I (1952)
• DSM-II (1968)
• DSM-III (1980)
• DSM-III-R (1987)
• DSM-IV (1994)
• DSM-IV-TR (2000)
• DSM-5 (2013)
  
  • Corresponds to the ICD

Question 35

Lightner Witmer

Answer 35

• Founded the first psychological clinic
• Founded the journal Psychological Clinic
• Coined the term “clinical psychology”
• Founded residential schools for troubled youth
• Lasting contributions
  
  • Principles of experimental/scientific psychology can be used to help troubled individuals
  • This help can be provided through a special profession (clinical psychology) that is independent of both medicine and education
  • A commitment that clinical psychology should be highly research oriented and be closely allied with basic psychology
  • Inspiration for the Boulder Conference (1949)
    
    • Scientist-practitioner model (if practicing, you should be researching, or at least know about the research that has happened/is happening)
    • Clinicians hold a Ph. D.
    • We will visit this in more detail later (chapter 20)

Question 36

Medical vs. Psychological Model

Answer 36

-Thomas Szasz: The Myth of Mental Illness (1974)

• Argued:
• Unless an illness is neurophysiological, it isn’t an illness
• Mental illness reflects social, political, or moral judgment (problems of living and conformity)
• Mental illness is a mislabel
  
  • Labeling absolves responsibility for solving one’s problems
  • Justifies the “sick role”

-Still debated today

Question 37

Franz Anton Mesmer

Answer 37

• *Hypnotism
• Human body contained a magnetic force field; can manipulate force field to influence mental health
• Used magnets to treat patients with unevenly distributed force fields
  
  • Patients knew what was expected to occur
  • The power of suggestion?
  • Eventually used his own hands to heal
    
    • Mesmer felt he was strong with the force (to quote Yoda)
• Left Vienna for dubious curative claims, but gained popularity in Paris (popular on purpose)
  
  • Treated groups of patients with his magnetic force
  • Phenomena of the contagion effect
    
    • Patients who would not respond to suggestion when alone with a physician, readily do so after seeing others response

-Eventually discredited, but mesmerism did not fade away – became popular in the United States

Question 38

Marquis De Puysegur

Answer 38

-*Hypnotism

• Developed artificial somnambulism
  
  • Trance-like state under which an individual responds to commands
• Observed phenomena commonly associated with hypnosis today
  
  • Highly suggestable
  • Paralysis of various sensations (ex: right arm is paralyzed)
  • Posthypnotic amnesia (don’t remember what happened when they wake up)
  • Posthypnotic suggestions (ex: bark like dog)
    
    • Will engage in an action that was suggested while under hypnosis
    • Example: Hypnosis to quit smoking (feel sick in stomach)
    • Example: Hypnosis for weight loss
    • Studies are mixed on the efficacy of this as a treatment option

Question 39

Jean-Martin Charcot

Answer 39

-*Hypnotism

• That being hypnotizable meant one was suffering from mental pathology (hysteria)
  
  • The Nancy School – hypnotizability was normal for everyone
  • Eventually saw his perspective was wrong
• Hypnotism as a form of treatment of the effects of trauma
  
  • Trauma causes dissociation of ideas from conscious awareness
  • They become strong enough to cause hysterical symptoms

-This leads us to the idea of repressed memories, which will be covered in Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis (Freud studied with Charot)

Question 40

First School

Answer 40

-*Hypnotism

• The Nancy (naw-see) School
  
  • Founded by Ambroise Auguste Liébeault
  • Grew out of his work with hypnosis in his medical practice
  • Others came to train with him
• Currently, no formal school for or degree in hypnosis, but certification programs exist
  
  • Certification Requirements
    
    • Licensed professionals in health care, mental health care, and pastoral counseling; graduate level degree
    • Courses and supervised clinical hours

Question 41

Current Programs and Organization

Answer 41

-*Hypnotism

• National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists
  
  • National Board Certified Clinical Hypnotherapist
• Other Certification Programs and Organizations
  
  • American College of Hypnotherapy
  • American Society of Clinical Hypnosis
  • Society for Clinical Experimental Hypnosis
  • American Council of Hypnotist Examiners
  • International Hypnosis Federation

Question 42

Sigmund Freud - Important Considerations

Answer 42

• Importance of historical context
  
  • Zeitgeist of his time
    
    • Zeitgeist: The defining spirit/mood of a particular historical period as shown by that era’s beliefs and ideas
  • Influence on his theoretical concepts
• Importance of family context
  
  • Freud’s relationship with his parents (his mom put all her time and energy; interesting family network); relationship with parents influence his theoretical concepts)
  • Influence on his theoretical concepts
• Importance of his choices
  
  • Freud was an MD with a known addiction to nicotine
  • Experimentation with cocaine
  • Led to the death of a colleague (tried to use cocaine to treat a morphine addiction)
  • Compromised his reputation

Question 43

Freud, Breuer, & Anna O.

Answer 43

• Freud & Breuer – friends and colleagues
  
  • Freud was influenced by Breuer’s work with Anna O.
• Anna O.:
  
  • Symptoms of hysteria (e.g., temporary paralysis, memory loss, mental disorientation); high anxiety
  • Used hypnosis to trace her symptoms to an earlier trauma (e.g., death of her father)
  • Awareness eased symptoms – Cathartic Method
  • She called it the “talking cure”
• Transference experienced by Anna O.
  
  • Transference: you start to act towards therapist as though they’re the source of issue (ex: You’re just like my mother.” and they lash out)
• Countertransference experienced by Breuer
  
  • Countertransference: therapist reacts (ex: “How could you say that? How dare you!”)

Question 44

Hypnosis and Psychoanalysis (Freud)

Answer 44

• Hypnosis (not his cup of tea):
• Influenced by Charcot and the Nancy School
• Found use of hypnosis to be inconsistent (results were hit or miss)
• Developed technique of free association (let patient just talk)
  
  • Used in response to resistance (Def: when the patient stops short of realizing a traumatic event); when they start getting uncomfortable, getting too close to the issue
• Needed to retrieve information from the unconscious
• Psychoanalysis:
• Assemble the fragmented material of the unconscious; therapy technique to get things out of unconscious
• Symptoms are a symbolic representation of unconscious conflicts
  
  • Repressed experiences or conflicts that do not go away
• Work with patients with hysteria
  
  • Led to “The Seduction Theory” – hysteria symptoms rooted in a previous sexual attack
  • Later evidence caused him to abandon the idea

Question 45

Dream Work (Freud)

Answer 45

• The Royal Road to the Unconscious”:
• Hysterical symptoms and dreams are symbolic manifestations of repressed traumatic thoughts
• Manifest vs. latent content
  
  • Manifest: What it appears to be on the surface
  • Latent: What it is really about (the underlying themes)
  • Examples: Dreams about flight
• Dreams as wish fulfillment:
• Dreams allow expression of desires without the anxiety
• Symbolism serves as a disguise; symbolism is protective layer (allows you to think about it, but not directly)

Question 46

Parapraxes (Freud)

Answer 46

• There are no “accidents”; everything is on purpose
  
  • Forgetting an appointment
  • Losing something
  • Mistakes in writing
  • Freudian slips
    
    • Principal Skinner Example

-All done unconsciously

Question 47

Topography of the Mind (Freud)

Answer 47

• The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary memories.
• Ego (executive mediator) - top of iceberg
• Superego (internalized details) - middle of iceberg
• Id (unconscious psychic energy) - bottom of iceberg

Typography:

• Conscious mind - at top (what you’re currently aware of; ex: in class, learning)
• Preconscious - in middle (outside awareness but accessible; holding place for memories that can be brought out)
• Unconscious mind - at bottom (not aware)

Question 48

Structural Model

Answer 48

-Freud

• Id:
  
  • Operates on the pleasure principle
  • Unconsciously strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress
  • Collective “Id Energy” = Libido
  • Runs amuck; doesn’t care; hedonistic; impulsive; death
  • Ex: of devil on Homer’s shoulder
• Ego:
  
  • Operates on a reality principle
  • Seeks to realistically gratify id’s impulses
  • Contains perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories
  • Anxiety: When Ego feels overwhelmed by the Id
  • Tries to temer id and superego
• Superego:
  
  • Focuses on ideal behavior
  • Strives for perfections
  • Acts as a moral conscious
  • Can be overly punishing
  • Ex: of angel on Homer’s shoulder

Question 49

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Freud)

Answer 49

• 1. Regression
• 2. Reaction Formation
• 3. Projection
• 4. Rationalization
• 5. Displacement
• 6. Denial
• None of these are helpful; all create barrier

Question 50

Regression

Answer 50

• Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
• Ex: a little boy reverts to the oral comfort of thumb sucking in the car on the way to his first day of school

Question 51

Reaction Formation

Answer 51

• Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

- Ex: Repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness

Question 52

Projection

Answer 52

• Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
• Ex: “The thief thinks everyone else is a thief” (an El Salvadoran saying)

Question 53

Rationalization

Answer 53

• Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions
• Ex: A habitual drinker says she drinks with her friends “just to be sociable.”

Question 54

Displacement

Answer 54

• Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
• A little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room
• Also called sublimation (channeling your feelings onto something else)
• Ex: of Homer Simpson

Question 55

Denial

Answer 55

• Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

- Ex: A partner denies evidence of his loved one’s affair

Question 56

Personality Development (Freud)

Answer 56

-During these stages, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones

• Freud’s Psycosexual Stages:
• 1. Oral (0-18 months)
     - Pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing, smoking
• 2. Anal (18-36 months)
     - Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
• 3. Phallic (3-6 years)
     - Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings; oedipal complex
• 4. Latency (6 to puberty)
     - Dormant sexual feelings
• 5. Genital (puberty on)
     - Maturation of sexual interests

-Phallic stage and oedipal complex - the male child castration anxiety; the female child and penis envy

Question 57

Fixation and Personality Development (Freud)

Answer 57

-Strong conflict can fixate an individual at earlier stages

• Oral fixation
  
  • Oral receptive personality – reduces stress through eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails
  • Oral aggressive personality – hostile and verbally abusive to others (sarcastic, rude, abusive)
• Anal fixation
  
  • Anal retentive personality – stingy, stubborn, perfectionistic; compulsive about order and tidiness
  • Anal expulsive personality – lack of self-control; messy and careless; generous

-*Fixation = hurdles

Question 58

Neo-Freudians

Answer 58

• Agreed with Freud about childhood importance
• Believed social, not sexual, tensions were important in personality formation
• Notable figures include
  
  • Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Stages of Development - conflict at different points in life)
  • Carl Jung
  • Alfred Adler
  • Karen Horney

Question 59

Carl Jung - The Personal and Collective Unconscious and Archetypes

Answer 59

• Conscious and Unconscious:
• Ego is the conscious mind
• Personal Unconscious
  
  • Your experiences – repressed and forgotten
  • Material from your lifetime
• Collective Unconscious
  
  • aka: Archetypes
  • Definition: Models of people, behaviors, and personalities
  • Innate, universal, and hereditary
• 4 Basic Archetypes:
• The Self: Unification of unconscious and conscious
• The Shadow: Repressed ideas, weakness, desires, shortcomings; part of unconscious mind; darker side
• The Anima/Animus
  
  • Anima: Female counterpart to male personality; how males can interact with females
  • Animus: Male counterpart to the female personality; how females can interact with males
  • How we interact with opposite sex
• The Persona: How we present ourselves to the world; the “mask”
  
  • Different depending on who you’re with
• Archetypes influence our emotions and how we relate to the world

Question 60

Alfred Adler

Answer 60

• Complexes:
• Inferiority
  
  • Can be a motivating factor: Positive growth
  • Can be a disabling force: Can lead to sense of inadequacy
    
    • Inferiority Complex
• Superiority
  
  • Can result from feelings of inferiority
  • Person overcompensates and places too much emphasis on striving for perfection
    
    • Superiority Complex
• Birth Order:
• First = leader, achiever, organized, responsible, adult-pleaser, rule follower, etc.
• Middle = flexible, easy-going, social, peacemaker, independent, strong negotiator, generous, etc.
• Last = risk-taker, outgoing, creative, competitive, enjoys being pampered, sense of humor, etc.
• Only = close to parents, leader, mature, dependable, demanding, private, sensitive, etc.

Question 61

Karen Horney

Answer 61

• Stressed the importance of the parent-child relationship
• Social interactions, not intrapsychic conflicts, are the causes mental illness; interaction matters (especially parent-child interaction)
• Basic hostility & basic anxiety
  
  • Hostility: Experienced toward parents; becomes a worldview
  • Anxiety: Repression of the hostility
• Coping with anxiety
  
  • Moving toward people
    
    • To seek help and acceptance
    • Compliant type
  • Moving against people
    
    • To force your power onto others in hopes of feeling good about yourself
    • Hostile type
    • Push people away
    • Ex: reject them before they reject you
  • Moving away from people
    
    • To distance oneself from others to keep from being hurt
    • Detached type
    • Health people adjust these patterns as needed; neurotic people get stuck in one

Question 62

Humanistic (Third-Force) Psychology. Why third force?

Answer 62

• By mid-20th century, structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology’s popularity waned
• Only psychoanalysis (1st force) and behaviorism (2nd force) remained influential
• By 1960’s
  
  • Maslow and others felt those two viewpoints were limited – focus on mind and body only
  • Wanted to include the human spirit (3rd force)
• Gave rise to:
  
  • Existential Psychology
  • Humanistic Psychology

Question 63

Existential Psychology: Martin Heidegger

Answer 63

• Humans are always becoming something other than what they were
• To “be” means to “exist;” To “exist” is to “change”
• The Authentic Life (living an authentic life):
  
  • Exercise your freedom to create a meaningful existence because life is short (death is inevitable; accept death, live your life, take responsibility)
  • Living life with excitement and a sense of urgency
  • Allows for personal growth (becoming)
  • Freedom means taking responsibility for one’s life
  • Must act within the circumstances of our lives – thrownness
    
    • Your inherent looks, your socioeconomic status, your ethnicity, etc.
  • Refusing to accept this fact may lead to living an inauthentic life
  • Gives up personal freedom and lives a life dictated by others
  • One becomes stagnant
  • Results in guilt and anxiety

-Ideal: move people forward to live authentic life

Question 64

Existential Psychology: Rollo May

Answer 64

• The human dilemma:
• Humans are objects and subjects of experience (dual aspect of human nature)
  
  • Objects – we exist
  • Subjects – we interpret, value, and make choices regarding our experiences
  • Within this dilemma (objects and subjects), we’re trying to be free
• Freedom brings responsibility and anxiety
  
  • Normal anxiety is conducive to personal growth (stress that’s good for you; ex: stressed about planning trip, but it’s motivating)
    
    • Healthy person exercises freedom to approach one’s full potential
    • Exercising free will may leads to normal anxiety
  • Neurotic anxiety is not conducive to personal growth (try to take people from this to normal anxiety)
    
    • Person conforms to tradition, dogma, etc. and reduces the need to make personal choices (self-alienation)
    • Giving up free will leads to existential guilt

Question 65

Myths - Rollo May

Answer 65

• A way to make sense of the world
• Narrative patterns that give significance to our existence
• Four functions (events in life are myths and that gives you the 4 functions):
  
  • Provide a sense of identity
  • Provide a sense of community*
  • Support our moral values
  • Provide a means of dealing with the mysteries of creation
• *Most important according to May
• Not all myths are healthy

Question 66

Existential Therapy

Answer 66

• Main goals of Existential Therapy
  
  • To explore why the client is not living an authentic life
  • Make choices that lead to reaching one’s full potential
    
    • Create new meaning
  • Help clients take responsibility in their lives
    
    • Client blames others for their predicament
    • Therapist asks how he/she contributed to the predicament
• Narrative Therapy
  
  • Explores the client’s myths
  • Understanding and evaluating the effectiveness of one’s stories

-Existential therapy is more a mindset than specific techniques

Question 67

Humanistic Psychology: Basic Tenets

Answer 67

• 1. Little of value can be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals
• 2. Subjective reality is the primary guide for human behavior
• 3. Studying individuals is more informative than studying what groups of individuals have in common
• 4. *A major effort should be made to discover those things that expand and enrich human experience
• 5. Research should seek information that will help solve human problems
• 6. The goal of psychology should be to formulate a complete description of what it means to be a human being
• Trying to look at you as a whole and help you reach your potential

Question 68

Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 68

• 1. Self-transcendence needs
     - Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self
• 2. Self-actualization needs
     - Need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
• 3. Esteem needs
     - Needs for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others; people recognize your efforts
• 4. Belongingness and love needs
     - Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation; need to be loved AND to love
• 5. Safety needs
     - Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
• 6. Physiological needs
     - Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
• Self-Actualization:
• Reaching one’s full, human potential
• Characteristics:
  
  • Perceive reality accurately and fully
  • Demonstrate great acceptance of self and others
  • Need for privacy
  • Have a few friends
  • Tend to be creative, etc.
• Criticisms:
• Can meet higher needs even if lower ones are not completely fulfilled
• Hierarchy varies across cultures
• Behavior is not motivated by a single need on the hierarchy; behavior is motivated by a myriad of needs

Question 69

Carl Rogers: Theory of Personality

Answer 69

• Organismic Valuing Process
  
  • Our tendency toward self-actualization
  • Innate
  • We select goals based on our inner nature and purpose
• Process can include:
  
  • Authenticity – being yourself
  • Autonomy – avoiding “shoulds” and making your own decisions
  • Internal locus of evaluation – judgment based on one’s own views rather than seeking approval from others
  • Unconditional positive self-regard – judging yourself as valuable and worthwhile
  • Process living – recognizing life is a constant state of becoming; always evolving
  • Relatedness – seeking close and deep personal relationships
  • Openness to inner and outer experience – being able to perceive and accept how others and oneself behaves and feels
• Conditions of Worth (How are you valuing yourself?)
  
  • Conditional positive regard
    
    • Stunts organismic valuing process
    • Ex: I’ll be your friend if you let me drive your car
  • Unconditional positive regard
    
    • Allows one to become a fully functioning person
    • Valued for who you are
    • Ex: I’ll love you no matter what

-Congruence and Incongruence

• Real Self vs. Ideal Self
  
  • Ideal Self: May be set up by others (in conditional, positive regard)
• Empathic Understanding and Personal Growth
  
  • Cornerstone of health relationships
  • Empathy: I understand your situation and relate it back to them; explain to them how you understand

Question 70

Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Psychology/Therapy

Answer 70

Treatment Goals:

- Help clients achieve greater independence and integration
- Help clients achieve-self-acceptance
- Help clients achieve authentic ways of being

• Treatment Approach:
  
  • Therapists must be genuine, present, accepting, congruent, and empathetic
  • More a philosophy than a set of techniques
  • The therapeutic relationship is the intervention
• *”It is the client who knows what hurts, what direction to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been deeply buried.” – On Becoming a Person
• More of a cooperation

Question 71

Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi: Positive Psychology

Answer 71

-The scientific study of human strengths and virtues

• What constitutes
  
  • A pleasant life
  • An engaged life
  • A meaningful life
• Focus on character strengths, optimism, happiness, well-being, compassion, self-esteem, hope, self-confidence, etc.
• We need to talk about the good

Question 72

Psychobiology - Main Focus

Answer 72

-Psychobiological research

• Biological bases of behavior
  
  • Central nervous system
  • Brain structures
  • Neurons
  • Neurotransmitters

-Beginnings of neuroscience

Question 73

Neurons

Answer 73

• Cell body: cell’s life-support center
• Dendrites: receive messages from other cells
• Axon: passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
• Terminal branches of axon: form junctions with other cells
• Myelin Sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
• Neural impulses: (action potential) electrical signal traveling down the axon
• Cytoplasm is the fluid that fills the neurons (and all cells)
• Neurons in CNS (brain and spinal cord)

Question 74

Glial Cells

Answer 74

• Provide nutritional support
• Removes waste (e.g., ions, neurotransmitters)
• Construct myelin
• Like the glue of the brain
• Provide structure

Question 75

Neurotransmitters

Answer 75

-Chemical messengers that travel from cell body to the terminal branches

Question 76

Example Neurotransmitters

Answer 76

• Acetylcholine (ACh): enables muscle action, learning, and memory; with alzheimer’s disease; ACh-producing neurons deteriorate
• Dopamine: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors and loss of motor control in Parkinson’s disease
• Serotonin: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression; some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
• Norepinephrine: helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood
• GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
• Glutamate: a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food)

Question 77

Karl Lashley - Important Contributions

Answer 77

• Failed Search for the Engram
  
  • Group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”
  • Lesioned rat brains to erase the engram, but they were still able to successfully run the maze
  • No evidence of the engram, but his studies led to the concepts of…
• Mass Action
  
  • Loss of ability related to amount of destruction rather than the location of destruction
  • Cortex appeared to work as a unified whole (Gestalt)
  • Quantity is what is important; amount vs. location that equates to how important it might be
• Equipotentiality
  
  • To remove a function, the entire area of brain responsibility for that function must be destroyed
  • Any remaining parts will still allow the function to occur; any remaining parts will be able to function

Question 78

Donald Hebb - Cell Assemblies and Phase Sequences

Answer 78

• Every environmental object we experience fires a complex package of neurons
  
  • Neurons that fire together, wire together, and survive together
• Neural interconnections develop with experience
  
  • Reverberating neural activity allows neurons to become associated
  • Pathways
  • When a cell assembly fires, experience the thought of that environmental object
• Cell assemblies become neurologically integrated to form phase sequences
  
  • Phase sequences = several connected cell assemblies; phase sequence putting together cell assemblies
  • Results in a stream of thought

Question 79

Donald Hebb - Learning and More

Answer 79

• Learning:
• Childhood
  
  • Slow buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences
  • They accumulate over time
  • Adulthood
  • The rearranging of existing cell assemblies and phase sequences
  • Characterized by creativity and insight
• Other Findings:
• Animals reared in enriched sensory environments are better learners as adults
• Arousal theory (activity in the reticular activating system as related to cognitive and behavioral performance)

Question 80

Roger Sperry - Split-Brain

Answer 80

• Original Work with Animals
  
  • Ablation of the corpus callosum and optic chiasm
  • No information exchange between hemispheres
  • Further understanding the two hemispheres are specialized
• In Humans for Medical Reasons
  
  • Work of Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
  • Severing of the corpus callosum
  • Used to cease propagation of a seizure from one hemisphere to the other
  • Lead to better understanding of hemispheric specialization
  • Cautionary note regarding brain plasticity

Question 81

General Overview: Brain Lateralization

Answer 81

• Left:
  
  • Analytical thought
  • Detail oriented perception
  • Ordered sequencing
  • Rational thought
  • Verbal
  • Cautious
  • Planning
  • Math science
  • Logic
  • Right field vision
  • Right side motor skills
• Right:
  
  • Intuitive thought
  • Holistic perception
  • Random sequencing
  • Emotional thought
  • Non-verbal
  • Adventurous
  • Impulse
  • Creative writing/Art
  • Imagination
  • Left field vision
  • Left side motor skills

Question 82

Corpus Callosum

Answer 82

• Band of fibers (association cortices) that connect the two hemispheres
  
  • Hemispheres are contralateral
    
    • Controls opposite side of body
    • Aware of the visual field on the opposite side

-Without it, the two hemispheres cannot communicate

Question 83

Split-Brain Patients

Answer 83

-The LH is the one that does verbal language, and that hemisphere is processing the right visual field. All it can verbally report is “ART”

Question 84

Cognitive Psychology - Defined

Answer 84

• The study of the mind as an information processor; how brain processes information
• Includes such mental processes as attention, language, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking
• Human Experimental Psychology:
  
  • Memory, attention, problem-solving, language
• Computer Analogies, Information Processing Approach:
  
  • Artificial intelligence
  • Computer simulation
• Cognitive Neuroscience:
  
  • Brain damage and effect on cognition

Question 85

Jean Piaget (Cognitive Psych)

Answer 85

• Studied errors in cognition made by children in order to understand in what ways they think differently than adults
• As cognitive structures mature via experience, interactions with the environment become more complex and adaptive
• Stressed the importance of play and cognitive development
• “Play is the work of childhood”

Question 86

Schemas/Schemata

Answer 86

• A basic mental structure into which information one receives from the environment is organized
• Earlier schemas set the stage for constructing new and more sophisticated schema
• Never stop changing and are constantly refined through a process of adaptation
• Schemas can take the form of images, models, and/or concepts
• Never-ending process
• Schema has to adjust when you’re learning new things

Question 87

Assimilation/Accommodation

Answer 87

-Schema (boy has learned schema of cat) → Assimilation (boy saw a cub and called it “cat.” Sister said, “No, it’s a cub.”) → Accommodation (he saw accommodates new schema of cub)

Question 88

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 88

• 1. Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years)
     - Children experience the world through senses and actions; big leap
• 2. Preoperational (2 years to 6-7 years)
     - Children represent things with words and images, but lack logical thinking
• 3. Concrete Operational (7 years to 11 years)
     - Children can think logically about concrete events and can perform arithmetic operations, but have problems with abstract thought; can’t think hypothetically yet
• 4. Formal Operational (12 years though adulthood)
     
     • Individuals can logically explore both concrete and abstract concepts. They can systematically think about all possibilities, project into the future or recall the past, and reason by analogy and metaphor; can think hypothetically

-Following slides will highlight the features of each stage

Question 89

Sensorimotor Stage

Answer 89

• Learn through sensory and motor experiences
• Major Milestone (big leap): Object Permanence
• Object Permanence Failure
• Family Guy Example
• Perseveration Error: learn they can look for things, but if you change it, they think it’s gone again, which is object permanence in progress

Question 90

Preoperational Stage Features

Answer 90

• Ability to think in symbols
  
  • Importance to reading and numerical skills
• Non-logical, magical thinking
• Pretend Play
• Animism (put human concepts onto inanimate objects
• Language Development
• Lack Conservation
  
  • Centration/Egocentrism (Tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem; have trouble seeing other perspectives; ex: “Is Brian your brother?” “Yes.” “Does Brian have a brother?” “No.” But he does)
  • Static Reasoning (Thinks nothing changes)
  • Focus on Appearance (Physical appearance is also its essence)
  • Irreversibility (Nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred)

Question 91

Preoperational: Theory of Mind

Answer 91

• Tempers egocentricity
• The ability to understand that others have their own thoughts and perspectives; realize other people have other thoughts/perspectives
• Perspective taking
• Have empathy if someone is hurt
• Learn they can lie

Question 92

Concrete Operational

Answer 92

• Logical thinking, but concrete in nature
  
  • “You made your bed, now go lie in it.”
• Major milestone: Conservation
  
  • Understanding that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
  • The ability to reverse (reversibility) one’s thinking, so to speak
  • Mathematical transformations

-Don’t understand hypothetical, abstract thinking

Question 93

Formal Operational Stage

Answer 93

-Move from a concrete to an abstract thinker

• New abilities
  
  • Hypothetical thinking
  • Abstract thinking
    
    • Understanding metaphors
  • Problem solving and decision making
    
    • Anticipating consequences
  • Metacognition
    
    • Similar to Norbert Wiener’s concept of Cybernetics (Maintenance of balance via feedback systems (e.g., thermostat))
    • Ability to think about your thought process
  • Potential for more mature moral reasoning

Question 94

Noam Chomsky - Language and Information

Answer 94

• Biological model of language development
• Language acquisition is “wired” into the species (inborn); species pre-wired to learn language
• Language Acquisition Device
  
  • Biological device with a critical period
  • Used to explain a child’s ability to quickly and efficiently learn the rules of grammar
  • Children not exposed to language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language
• Other biological evidence
  
  • Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas
  • Children universally follow the same sequence in language development
• Criticism
  
  • Doesn’t explain how we keep up with the fast-changing nature of language
  • 2018 Additions to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary – “If beer is more your thing, you might be a hophead heading to a brewery to taste a flight. Blended words, sometimes called portmanteau words, are also in the new list: a dish of zoodles and a mocktail might improve your mood if you’re hangry.”

Question 95

Contrasting Language Development Theories

Answer 95

• Operant Model (Skinner):
• “Infants need to be taught”
• Involves such leaning principles as association, imitation, and reinforcement
  
  • Children respond to the reinforcement they get for making speech sounds
  • Language is acquired through imitation of adult speech
  • Children only learn the language spoken around them
• Criticism
  
  • Doesn’t explain why children make grammar errors e.g., goed vs. went
  • Learn language because rewarded for using it
• Social Pragmatic Model:
• ”Social impulses foster infant language”
• Infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings; social connections
• The emotional messages of speech, not the words, are the focus of early communication
• The social context of speech is universal, which is why babies learn whatever specifics their culture provides
• Evolution of message matters

Question 96

Which Language Theory is correct?

Answer 96

• All theories/models offer insight into language acquisition
• A combination of these theories is what’s recognized
• Hybrid Theory of Language Learning
  
  • Also known as “The Interactionist Approach”
  • Language learning is biological and social (which includes learning principles)

-In summary: Language is a complex construct and early exposure in a caring/nurturing environment is key

Question 97

Leon Festinger’s Experiment “When Prophecy Fails” (1956) (Cognitive Psychology’s Influence on Social Psychology)

Answer 97

• Classic covert participant observation study
• Infiltrated a UFO cult (“The Seekers”) that believed a great flood was coming and they, as true believers, would be rescued by aliens in a flying saucer from the planet “Clarion”
• Cult members were totally committed to the belief
• Aliens never came as predicted by the cult leader
• Cult members adjusted their belief: “The little group, sitting all night long, had spread so much light that God had saved the world from the destruction.”; dissonance caused them to create new story
• Goal of the study was to study the anxiety that would result when the prophecy failed – resulted in the term “cognitive dissonance”

Question 98

Leon Festinger (Cognitive Psychology’s Influence on Social Psychology)

Answer 98

• Cognitive Dissonance
  
  • The state of holding two or more conflicting cognitions simultaneously
  • People have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements
  • Similar to Freud’s ego defense mechanism of rationalization
• Examples:
  
  • A person who enjoys smoking (behavior) knows it can cause cancer (cognition)…This causes dissonance
  • Resolved by stating that he/she needs it to “calm the nerves”

-Problem: An individual can come to believe their own “lie” and “double-down” when confronted with the dissonance (the truth)

Question 99

Other Important Contributions (Cognitive Psychology’s Influence on Social Psychology)

Answer 99

• Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Studies
• Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE)
• Both share important contributions to social psychology research
• Both share important contributions to ethics in research with regard to protecting human subjects (i.e., informed consent, deception, debriefing)

Question 100

Criticisms of Milgram’s Work (Update)

Answer 100

• Recent discovery of documents and audiotapes found in Yale archives
• “Authority” figures often went off script and became more coercive
• Some subjects may have known the learner was faking
• In other various of the study, fewer, if any, people obeyed
• Puts question to the external validity of the studies

Question 101

Stanford Prison Experiment Criticisms

Answer 101

• Ecological validity
  
  • Criticized that mock prison and short time period could result in such extreme depersonalization
• Participant bias selection
  
  • Dispositional aggression higher and dispositional empathy lower among those who volunteer for prison study as compared to a nondescript psychological study (Carnahan & McFarland, 2007)
• Demand characteristics
  
  • Students were most likely able to guess the purpose of the study (Banuazizi & Movahedi, 1975)
• Zimbardo’s dual role
  
  • Principal investigator and prison superintendent
  • May have influenced the behavior of participants early in the study (i.e., the guard orientation)
• Variance in guard behavior
  
  • Few SPE guards actually embraced the “bad guard” role
  • More were unwilling to adopt such roles

Question 102

British Broadcasting Corporation Prison Study

Answer 102

• 8-day period
• Random assignment to prisoner and guard roles
• Discrepant results
  
  • No abusive (guard) or submissive (prisoner) behaviors (the prisoners revolted and tried to establish a new regime)
  • Role adoption depended upon group identification
    
    • Guards did not form a cohesive group
      - Did not identify with their role
      - Did not their authority
      - Prisoners formed a cohesive group
      - Identified with their role
      - Overtook the guards

-Suggests that it is powerlessness and the failure of groups that makes tyranny psychologically acceptable

Question 103

Alfred Bandura - Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Answer 103

• Aka Observational Learning
• A brand of behaviorism more compatible with cognitive and social psychology
• One doesn’t have to be rewarded/punished to learn/lose a behavior
• Bobo Doll Experiments
• Major contribution: You don’t need to be punished directly; you can learn by watching someone
  
  • Ex: learn you need to slow down if you see someone else get ticket

Question 104

Mirror Neurons

Answer 104

• An added neurological factor to SLT
• Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.
• Enables imitation and empathy
• Hypothesized deficit area in autism spectrum disorders
• Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
  
  • John Robison (Ingenious Minds)
• Ex: see someone run into door, and you flinch
• Autistic people have trouble with mirror neurons

Question 105

SLT Raises Important Questions

Answer 105

• Antisocial & Prosocial Behavior
  
  • How do popular music and video games influence behavior?
  • How does this influence personal responsibility?
  • How can we use SLT to improve helping behaviors?
• Psychopathy
  
  • How would SLT explain the development of eating disorders in teenage girls?

Question 106

Artificial Intelligence

Answer 106

• The extent to which machines can replicate the mental powers of humans
• Combination of cybernetics, information theory, and computer technology

Question 107

Alan Turing and the Turing Test

Answer 107

• Can machines think?
  
  • Weak AI – can only simulate human mental attributes
    
    • Searle’s Chinese Room – Computers only manipulate symbols, but no meaning is attached to them
  • Strong AI – it is a mind capable of understanding and having mental states
• Turing Test: A test to see if a machine can pass for a human
  
  • Annual Turing Test Competitions (Society for the Study of AI)
  • No computer has passed it as of October 2018

Question 108

American Psychological Association

Answer 108

• Founded in 1892 by Stanley Hall
• In 1944, organized 18 divisions and included psychology as a profession and a means of promoting human welfare
• Current Mandate
  
  • Encourage the development and application of psychology
  • Promote research in psychology (i.e., methods, application)
  • Establish ethics, educational standards, etc.
  • Provide professional support (e.g., journals, conferences)

-Currently close to 120,000 members

• Comprised of 56 numbered divisions, 54 are active
  
  • Shows the diversity of the field

Question 109

Other Associations

Answer 109

• Association for Psychological Science
  
  • Formerly American Psychological Society
• Regional
  
  • Eastern Psychological Association
  • Midwestern Psychological Association
  • New England Psychological Association
  • Rocky Mountain Psychological Association
  • Southeastern Psychological Association
  • Southwestern Psychological Association
  • Western Psychological Association
• State
• American Counselors Association (national, regional, and state)
• By Discipline or Interest

Question 110

Current Issues - Basic vs. Applied Psychology

Answer 110

• In other words, science vs. application
  
  • Basic research: theory- focused, hypothesis- testing science driven by a quest for knowledge
  • Applied research: problem-solving focus with application to the real world
• Tensions from the past continue today
• APA stresses they are of equal importance
• Is psychology a science?
  
  • Some aspects are scientific and others are not
• Should psychology be unified?
  
  • Individual view
  • Best that we all “play nice together”

-Acknowledge that this is a very diverse field comprised of a collection of different facts, theories, assumptions, methodologies, and goals

Question 111

Training for Clinical Psychologists

Answer 111

• Boulder Model
  
  • Clinicians should have a Ph.D. in psychology
• Ph.D. Vs. Psy.D.
  
  • Psy.D.: 1968 - U of I; 1968 - California School of Professional Psychology
    
    • Many other programs soon followed
  • Professional/independent school (e.g., CSPP, Argosy) vs. traditional programs (e.g., Indiana State University, Wheaton College)
    
    • Controversy over professional/independent schools
  • Same academic process with a few differences
  • Same licensure exam: Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP)
    
    • EPPP is currently being revised
  • Same opportunities for board certification: American Board of Assessment Psychology (ABAP) (Board certified means you got your license, and a few years later, you take ABAP and earn another credential; not mandatory)

Question 112

Perspective Authority

Answer 112

• The battle for a service and an identity
  
  • Psychology vs. Psychiatry

-Post-doctoral Masters Degree in Clinical Psychopharmacology

• New Mexico, Louisiana, Illinois, Iowa, Idaho, Oregon, New Jersey(?)
  
  • With restrictions (ex: can’t prescribe to children, pregnant women, etc.)

-What are the advantages of psychologists having prescription privileges?