Test #3 Flashcards
Study of texts or messages can be central to the communication discipline.
Quantitative analysis of text
What are the 2 data collection and analytical methods?
- Content analysis
2. Interaction analysis
What kind of approach are content analysis and interaction analysis?
Quantitative
A data collection and analytical technique that allows researchers to make inferences by identifying specific characteristics of messages.
Content analysis
Characteristics of content itself on the surface.
Manifest content
Characteristics of implied content hidden below the surface. (Plus what’s on the surface)
Latent content
Is latent content an objective or subjective approach?
Subjective
Evaluating and deciding (in latent context)
Coding
Content analysis must be ?
- Systematic
- Have generality
- Objective as possible
Findings should have theoretical relevance.
Generality
Identifying content to be coded and coding and interpreting the content.
Systematic in content analysis
Carried out according to rules and procedures determined before the research begins.
Objectivity in content analysis
Why is content analysis a quantitative approach?
It uses frequency counts.
A number of messages can be classified into a set of categories.
Basic principle of content analysis
Categories produce frequency counts to allow for comparisons.
Basic principle of content analysis
Researcher addresses the relevance of frequencies to the theoretical propositions supporting the study.
Frequency counts
What content can be analyzed?
Any message or aspect of a message that can be captured. (Senders, sources, or recipients of messages)
Ex. Media, tv shows, etc)
What is the core to content analysis?
Developing content categories
Defining/choosing content categories must be:
- Exhaustive
- Equivalent
- Mutually exclusive
When should “other” be used as a category?
- When it makes sense theoretically
2. When it doesn’t include too many cases
Is content analysis a time consuming and tedious process?
Yes
All coders must be trained in content analysis. T/F?
True
Coders must:
- Use written coding system and rules
2. Practice on similar texts or messages
Coders work independently once…
Sufficient degree of reliability is established.
When coders have very similar results.
Coding reliability
Intercoder or interrater reliability is established when…
There is coding reliability and unitizing reliability
Appropriateness and adequacy of coding scheme for this set of messages.
Validity
What are the strengths of content analysis?
- Unobtrusive (not with people)
- Applicable to a variety of text structures.
- Adaptable
What are the limitations of content analysis?
- If the message cannot be captured it cannot be coded.
2. Selection process may not be representative. (Room for sampling error)
Researcher codes content of ongoing communication between two or more individuals.
Interaction analysis
Interaction analysis is the same as content analysis except for…
What you analyze
What does interaction analysis identify?
Verbal or nonverbal features or functions or the stream of conversational elements.
What is interaction analysis usually limited to?
Those in interpersonal Comm
What does interaction analysis allow for?
Complex analysis:
Intent and function of messages
Effect of messages
4 steps of analyzing and interpreting the coded data in interaction analysis?
- Return to the RQ or hypothesis
- Compare to the theoretical position
- Frequency analysis is common
- Look for patterns that simple frequency analyses cannot illuminate
Strengths of interaction analysis?
- Elements before/after a coded element are considered.
- Places emphasis on relative position.
- Several coding schemes have been developed and validated over time.
Limitations of interaction analysis
- Limited by validity and representativeness of coding scheme.
- Ongoing streams of conversation are not neat and tidy which can make them difficult to code.
- Time consuming
In qualitative research what is the primary data collection instrument?
The researcher
Participation and observation are…
Integrated
Focuses on specific interactions in specific Comm contexts and events.
Qualitative research
Is qualitative research subjective or objective?
Subjective
Role of researcher is integrated within the context of individuals being observed.
Researchers role in qualitative methodologies
What are the 4 types of observation approaches?
- Overt
- Covert
- Observer
- Participant
Researcher is among participant but his/ her identity is hidden. (Covert)
Complete participant
Researcher is both a participant and an observer.
Participant as observer
Focus is more on participation in what type of observation?
Participant as observer
Researcher is both participant and observer.
Observer as participant
Focus is more on observation in what type of observation approach?
Observer as participant
Solely observes and does not interact with participants at all.
Complete observer
Researcher must make decision at each step and provide reasons for that decision in which type observation?
Complete observer
What does qualitative tend to emphasize?
Description and explanation
What kinds of questions should qualitative researchers start with?
Interesting/compelling questions
Cannot process large sample size but can obtain in depth information from the given sample.
Sampling in qualitative studies
What type of sampling do qualitative studies usually use?
Non probability sampling (snowball, purposive)
Studying few people and have them refer others to continue studying.
Snowball sampling
Choosing to study people who have the qualities you need to study.
Purposive sampling
How should the sample be determined?
Identifying desirable sample characteristics
Randomly selecting days and times for data gathering…
Increases representativeness
Gaining access in a research setting is particularly important in?
Field observation
Your acceptance by others depends on your ability to play the part in?
A covert role
Access is about?
Physical access and the access people grant you when they are comfortable with you.
What must be addressed due to the researcher’s intimate role with participants in overt observation?
Trust
What is paramount for qualitative studies?
Trust between participants and researchers
To develop report…
- Awk simple questions
- Maintain positive conversation posture.
- Learn names and titles
- Perform commitment acts (interact with participants and assist them)
- Locate key informants
Observing is…
Purposeful not accidental
Observe for…
Prolonged periods of time
When should the researcher read through and reflect on field notes?
Immediately after leaving the scene
Videotaping can be
Inappropriate depending on the context
What is data in qualitative research?
Anything that can be observed/captured
What can decrease the data quality?
Researcher and participants bias
Research should be
As diverse as possible
What may credibility replace?
Reliability and validity
What enhances credibility?
Triangulation (multiple methods)
Audit trial
Participants checks
Method for discovering how people think and feel about their communication practices.
Field interviewing
Conversation in field interviews are…
Semi directed
What is the goal of field interviewing?
To uncover the participant’s POV
Field interviews can be formal, informal, or both. T/F
T
Interviewing via email, Skype, website, fax, etc.
Electronic interviewing
What are the advantages of electronic interviewing?
Low cost and can reach long distances.
What are the disadvantages of electronic interviewing?
Difficult to develop rapport
Creates fictional social reality
Cant check nonverbals
May take longer
What are the steps in the interview process?
- Conceptualize the interview study
- Ask questions
- Conclude the interview
- Transcribe the interview
Open ended questions are better than closed questions. T/F
T
Moderator led group discussion.
Focus groups
How many people are typically in a focus group?
5-10
How long is the group discussion (focused conversation) in a focus group?
60-90 minutes
Focus groups are not to be used as?
A decision making group
Focus groups are most commonly used in?
Marketing
Selecting focus group participants is based on?
The research question
To be effective, a focus group must be…
As homogenous as possible (with respect to demographic and socioeconomic characteristics)
What should researchers use to qualify participation in a focus group?
Screening questions
What is the most important role in the focus group?
Moderator
Moderator may not be…
The researcher
The moderator needs to…
Guide discussion
Ensure key aspects of the topic are being discussed
Observe interactions
Record dialogue and reactions
The moderator needs to be someone the participants can…
Identify with
Moderator should have…
Credibility
A focus group is the most…
Costly method in qualitative research
Standardized list of questions or topics to cover that usually funnel from general to more specific.
Focus group outline
Opening questions should be…
Broad
How is data gathered in a focus group?
- Discussions are audio or videotaped
- Tapes are transcribed and verified
- Moderator should make field notes immediately following each session
What are the strengths of a focus group?
- Views and opinions on participants own words
- Allows consensus or conflict to emerge among participants.
- Can generate info about the same topic from different people
What are the limitations of focus groups?
- Talkative or overly opinionated participants.
- Group effect
- Use of ineffective moderator
- Easy to overgeneralize findings
Hesitant to express opinions that oppose other people’s opinions
Group effect
Study and representation of people and their interactions in their cultural or subcultural group.
Ethnography
What field developed and refined the ethnography?
Anthropology
How long is the researcher immersed into the field in an ethnography?
Long periods of time. Months, years
What is the data in an ethnography?
What the researcher observes/experiences
What context does an ethnography capture data in?
Natural context
Ethnographers share the environment…
With those being studied
Researchers are unlikely to have well developed research questions in an ethnography. T/F
True
Does data fit into neat categories in an ethnography?
No
What is the focus on in an ethnography?
One case or a small number of cases
Research method that takes the most time to complete.
Ethnography
How does the researcher gain entry in an ethnography?
By becoming a part of the interaction environment
Why must ethnographers be integrated into the culture?
So others interact normally with and toward the researcher
What is considered data in an ethnography?
Everything (nothing is accidental)
What are the strengths of ethnographies?
- Rich, deep descriptions
2. Researcher develops intimacy with communicators and context otherwise not possible.
What are the limitations of ethnographies?
- Time commitment
- Researcher must be saturated in the data, thus can create bias.
- Can over identify with the participants, creating bias.
Process of labeling and breaking down raw data. (Messy, ambiguous, and time consuming)
Analysis
What brings order, structure and interpretation?
Analysis
Back and forth between data from participants and interpretation.
Reflecting
Analysis is inductive. T/F
True
Captures first impressions and reflections. (Not part of the data)
Analytical memos
Who writes analytical memos?
The researcher
What helps see relationships?
Placing data into tables, diagrams, or graphs
What can computer assisted data analysis be used for?
Data management
Data analysis
Data reduction process that reduces data into a manageable size.
Coding and categorizing data
Set of similar examples or themes.
Categories
What should the researcher look for in categorizing?
Opposite or negative cases
How should categories be labeled?
Descriptive words or short phrases
Making sense or giving meaning to the results of thematic analyses.
Process of interpretation
Translating categories into meaningful whole by switching from micro frame to macro frame.
Process of interpretation (what it entails)
How to evaluate the interpretation:
- Do participant quote illuminate the analysis?
- Credibility (believe able, agreeable to participants.)
- Triangulation, audit trial, participation checks.
Overuse and long quotes should be avoided. T/F
True
When is a quantitative study complete?
When the research report is written
The framework of the research investigation based on the literature used to design and develop the research study.
The literature review
What does the literature review do?
Puts the present study into perspective
The literature review provides…
A historical overview of the variables studied
What does the literature review include?
Analysis, synthesis, and critique
Positioned near the beginning of the literature review and identifies the research objective in a few sentences.
The problem statement
What should the problem statement provide?
Justification for conducting the research
At the end of the literature review (as they emerge from the lit reviewed) and stated separately as a question or sentence.
Research questions and hypotheses
Provides a description for how the research study was executed.
(Description of the participants, research procedure, and variables)
Methods section
Presented in the order of the research questions and hypothesis.
Results section
Researcher’s interpretation of the results. (Not a restatement of the findings. What do the results mean and the implications)
Discussion session
What does the discussion section do?
Links conclusions back to lit
Provides limitations
Suggests future research
What are the issues in writing?
Careless writing Unspecified assumptions Failure to place study within published research Unclear hypothesis or research questions Vague or undefined terms
