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Memory and Cognition Test 3 > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

__ is a mental representation of an object (or event or pattern) [i__]

A

Concept

internal

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2
Q

__ consists of the objects in the world that we consider to be representatives of the __; a class of similar objects [e__]

A

Category

concept

external

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3
Q

With concepts and categories we are mostly talking about __ memory and knowledge rather than __.
-o__ and their p__, s__ and sc__

A

Semantic, episodic

objects and their properties, scripts, schemas

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4
Q

Why we need concepts:
–__ knowledge
–Help us make __

A

functional

inferences

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5
Q

Characteristics of concepts:
–Can be independent of __
–Can be __
–__ types

A

language

hierarchical

different

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6
Q
  1. Concepts are __ Knowledge

ex: dogs, f__

A

functional

what dogs eat, what they look like, what they do , facts.

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7
Q
  1. Concepts Help Us Make __
  • We can make __ about a ___ instance, if we can put it into a __ category
  • __ instances inherit the category’s __
  • Categories are not just based on __ similarity
A

inferences

inferences, novel, familiar

novel, characteristics

perceptual

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8
Q

Characteristics of Concepts Can Be Independent of __

•Infant and young children have concepts __ they have language

A

language

before

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9
Q

Conceptual Hierarchy:

•__ordinate level:
–Most __
–Ex: T_, A__

•B__ level:
–I__
–Ex: C_, D__

•__ordinate level:
–Most specific
–Ex: L__

A

superordinate, general, tree, animal

basic, intermediate, cat, dog

subordinate, specific, Labrador

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10
Q

People process different types of concepts differently

–N__ concepts: based on definitions set by __

ex: •__ NUMBER, B__, S__

A

nominal

humans

even number, bachelor, square

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11
Q

People process different types of concepts differently

–N__-kind concepts: Objects found in the __ world

ex: •A__, P__, I__, M__

A

natural

natural

animal, plant, island, mountain

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12
Q

People process different types of concepts differently

–A__ concepts: Objects made by __.

•F__, V__, A__

A

artifactual

humans

furniture, vehicle, art

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13
Q

Types of concepts based on use or function:

–__-derived – foods to eat on a diet; things to take from the house if there’s a fire [see ad hoc categories]

–__ categories – rivalry, hunting

–__ categories – visits, dates, shopping trips

–__ categories – Millennials, Gen-X, Republican, Democrat

A

goal

relational

event

social

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14
Q

Three views of concepts:

  1. __ View: Concepts based on rules
    - object fits __ or it doesn’t

2.F__-r__: Concepts based on similarity

  1. E__: Concepts based on similarity
    - to an __/__
A

Classical
-rule

family-resemblance

exemplar
-event/episode

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15
Q

Classical View

•N__ and j__ sufficient features

–Example: __
•Closed geometrical figure
•2 dimensional
•Composed of 3 lines

–Example: __
•Male
•Unmarried
•Human

A

necessary and jointly sufficient

triangle

bachelor

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16
Q

How do we learn new categories?
•81 Cards: 4 dimensions; 3 features within a dimension

•A rule defines the “correct” category
–Three shapes + black
–Either 2 borders or 3 gray shapes

  • Subject picks cards and tries to guess the rule
  • Conjunctive or disjunctive rules

•Conjunctive concept:
–Defined by a rule that only uses the logical connectives __ and __.
–Ex: (__ = three) AND (__ = black)
–__ to learn

•Disjunctive concept:
–Defined by a rule that uses ___-__ (and may also use __ and __).
–Ex: EITHER 2 __ OR 3 __.
–__ to learn

A

and, not
number, color
easier

either-or, and, not
borders, shapes
harder

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17
Q

Implications of Classical View

  • __ specifying __ features define categories
  • Concepts are NOT __ of specific examples.

•Category membership is __ __.
Examples:
–triangles
–triangles vs. circles

A

rules, required

memories

clear cut

All triangles are equally triangular

There are no objects that we can’t decide if they are triangles or circles.

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18
Q

Family Resemblance Theory Background

•Some concepts can’t be defined by __ and __ features (classical view)
ex–G__, p__, s__

•Category members have a __ __(varying degree of __) to one another

A

necessary, sufficient
games, pornography, superheroes

family resemblance, similarity

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19
Q

Family-Resemblance Theory

Thought of by __ __

  • Degree of __ among items determines __ structure
  • All instances of that concept may not share one single __ __.
  • However, the more ___ features an item has, the more __ an example of the concept it is
A

Eleanor Rosch

similarity, category

common feature

characteristic, typical

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20
Q

Family-Resemblance Theory Graded Conceptual Structure

  • Graded structure: certain category members are rated as more __ or ___ of the category than others
  • Prototype: the __ representative of a concept; it possesses many __ concept features (the “__ of __” of the cluster)
  • Items with minimal overlap with other items are __ members
A

typical, representative

best, typical

center of mass

peripheral

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21
Q

Family-Resemblance Theory Graded Conceptual Structure

•Evidence for __-based __ structure of concepts:
–__ ratings
–Faster verification of __ members (more __)

•Participants rated the extent to which basic-level examples represented their idea of the __ category
–1 = very good example
–7= poor example

ex: fruits

A

prototype, internal

typicality

typical, accessible

superordinate

people rated an orange as a 1 and an olive as a 6.

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22
Q

Evidence for Family Resemblance Similarity-Based Categorization

•People listed attributes of objects in Category (BIRD)
–Robin, Bluejay: feathers, flies, nests in trees, sings, eats worms
–Penguin: feathers, wings

  • Positive correlation between ___ of characteristic features & __ ratings
  • __ members share __ features
A

number, typicality

prototypical, characteristic

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23
Q

___ of Category Members

•Typicality:
–High (e.g, robin)
–Medium (eagle)
–Low (e.g, penguin)

•True/False: Decide whether each word is a member of a given category

.•Prototypical members of a category:
–Most accessible for __
–Play a role in __ structure

A

accessibility

recall

category

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24
Q

Exemplar-Based View

•Alternative theory to classical and family-resemblance theories

Classical View:
– __-based; __ rules easier than __ rules

Family-Resemblance:
– similarity to __

Exemplar-Based View:
–No single __ __ of a concept
–Concepts are based on __ in memory called __.
-New items categorized based on similarity to __.

A

rule, conjunctive, disjunctive

prototype

mental representation
episodes, exemplars, exemplars

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25
Q

Memory for Specific Instances (__ instead of __)

  • Memory for the __ training exemplars is maintained, even after a more __ representation of the category has been developed.
  • Amnesiacs with difficulties with episodic memory can categorize stimuli accurately (__ memory), even if they can’t recognize the stimuli from training (__, __ memory)
  • It is problematic for Exemplar Theory if concept learning takes place independently of __ of specific items
  • We use both __ and __.
A

exemplars, prototypes

specific, abstract

implicit, explicit, episodic

memory

exemplars, prototypes

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26
Q

•Each theory has difficulty explaining some aspect of __ __.

–Prototypes and exemplars both rely on __ for categorization

–BUT – sometimes, surface __ is less important than other factors in categorization

•E___

A

concept formation

similarity

similarity

essentialism

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27
Q

Specific vs Placeholder Essentialism

•Specific essentialism:
–A category essence is __ and contributes to the __ and __ of the category label.
–Example: The essence of water is H2O.

•Placeholder essentialism:
–A person believes that there is some __ that holds a category together, without knowing just what that __ is.
–Ex: A person believes that all samples of water share some inherent, non-obvious property.

A

known

meaning, use

essence, essence

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28
Q

Psychological Essentialism Characteristics of Categories
Our focus is psychological placeholder essentialism.

•Some categories have an underlying true __ that can’t be __ directly
–Membership has an i__, g__, or b__ basis
–Membership is s__
–Membership is __-__-__

–EXAMPLE: Preschoolers who were told that a baby kangaroo went to live with goats still predicted the kangaroo would hop and have a pouch

•Essentialism is a r__ h__.

A

nature, observed

innate, genetic, biological

stable

all-or-none

reasoning heuristic

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29
Q

Evidence for Essentialism: __ Labels Can Trump __ Similarity
•4-yr-old kids and adults
•20 triplets of pictures
•The target shared a category label with one item, but was drawn to resemble the other. (aka: bird drawn to look like similar to bat)

•Property projection test:
–Bat –> feeds milk to babies
–Flamingo –>mashed-up food

–What does Bird feed to babies?
•Underlying __ outweigh __ similarity, even for __…there’s a developmental shift from __ to __ features

A

category, perceptual

essences, surface

children

surface, essential

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30
Q

•Essentialist: __-__-__ category membership
Vs.
•Prototypes: __ structure

Can people use essentialist information to make category decisions and still show graded structure effects?

YES, Prototype & Essentialist Categories CAN __-__.

ex: Grandmothers

A

all-or-none

graded

co-exist

GRANDMOTHER has a biological, rule-based definition, BUT some grammies are more grandmotherly than others…People may represent both the essential and prototypicality of concepts simultaneously

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31
Q

Development

  • Does how we __ the world change as we get older?
  • Perhaps not surprisingly, __.

•Children’s concepts shift from use of __, __ features to use of __ features to categorize __, __ kinds

ex: Can a Raccoon Change Into a Skunk?
- what did younger kids say? older kids?

  • Developmental shift from __ to __ features for biological kinds.
  • All ages willing to change categories for __.
A

conceptualize, yes

perceptual, surface

essentialist

natural, biological

younger kids used surface features and said it can become a skunk and as they got older there was a developmental shift from characteristic to essential features.

characteristic, essential

artifacts.

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32
Q

Developmental shift from ___ to ___ features

  • 5.5-10 yr olds shown descriptions of people or objects
  • Can this person be a robber?
  • Younger children used __ features
  • Older children used __ features
  • Shift to __ features for non-biological (__) categories
A

characteristic, defining

surface

defining

essential

nominal

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33
Q

Hierarchical Semantic Network

  • C__ & Q__: First model of semantic memory
  • Each concept is represented by a __ in memory
  • Concepts are related by __
A

Collins and Quillian

node

links

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34
Q

•Models of semantic memory

  1. How knowledge is __
  2. How knowledge is used in __ and __.
A

structured

thinking, reasoning

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35
Q

Processing in Semantic Networks

•Cognitive __
–Ex. All birds fly, so… _____

•To answer a question, search memory
–Each word activates its __
–Do the two paths to the root __?

A

economy
All birds fly, so attach fly to ‘bird’ and not ‘robin’

node

intersect

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36
Q

How to Test Hierarchical Organization in Semantic Memory?

•Category __ tasks
•Reaction times (RT): T or F
–Faster for __ than __.
–Faster for information __ together (fewer __)

•__ tests (fastest to slowest reaction times)
–“A canary is a bird”
–“A canary is a fish”

•__ tests (fastest to slowest reaction times)
–Level 0: “A canary can sing”
–Level 1: “A canary can fly”
–Level 2: “A canary has skin”

A

verification

true, false
closer
links

concept

property

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37
Q

Problems with C&Q’s Semantic Nets

•The domain of “__ __” is a unique taxonomy

•Verification time depends on other factors (__, __).
–“A canary is a bird.” verifies __ than “A penguin is a bird.”

•___ effects often go away when these factors are included:
–“A shark can move.” verifies __ than “An animal can move.”

•Reverse distance effects for __ statements:
–“Canary is a tiger” __ than “Canary is a carrot”

A

living things

typicality, frequency
faster

hierarchical
faster

false
slower

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38
Q

Spreading-Activation Model

  • __ network (not ___)
  • Connections vary on __ strength
  • __ spreads along links to explain __ effects
  • Explains why “Canary is a bird” verifies __ than a “Penguin is a bird”
A

associative, hierarchical

associative

activation, priming

faster

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39
Q

Semantic Memory in ACT-R

  • Seeing, hearing, reading a word activates the __ in memory
  • __ activation

•Activation speed and strength depend on:
–Number of __ on a __.
–Activation __

ex: dodo bird

A

concept

spreading

links, node

frequency

  1. The dodo, a bird, was discovered in Australia
  2. The dodo does not fly
  3. The dodo eats flowers
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40
Q

•Maybe memory only uses the global __-___ of words to build concepts?

–Sematic memory is constructed out of context-based __ among words, instead of meaning or features
–__ similarity of words define the relations between any two concepts

Hyperspace Analogue to Language (HAL)
•Input 300,000,000 words from internet discussion groups
•Window of processing = 10 words

•Examples:
–__ and __ are conceptually linked because they appear in similar __ (are close to similar words in the 10-word window)

A

co-occurences

associations

contextual

road and street

contexts

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41
Q

The Basic Level
•Categories are ___ organized

•The Basic Level is psychologically “___”
–How we (generally) __
–Most __ level; not too __ or too __.
–Cross-__ and cross-__ preference

A

hierarchically

privileged

communicate

informative

general, specific

cross-cultural, cross-linguistic

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42
Q

Semantic Memory and Expertise

•__ changes the level used to label objects
–Bird experts used the __ level, but novices used the __ level

•Basic Level & categorization changes with __
–Three kinds of tree experts classified trees differently, depending on their __

A

expertise

subordinate, basic

goals

objectives

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43
Q

Concepts are Flexible

•Ad hoc or Improvised Concepts

–Sometimes we make __ on the __
–__, and not dependent on a stable concept in _ _ _.

A

categories, fly

situational, LTM

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44
Q

Rational Thinking

  • “Within cognitive science, thinking is often used to refer to r__, d__ m__, p__ s__, and c__.”
  • “Rational thinking is thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our __.”
  • “The term rational thinking can also be applied to thinking that conforms to the rules of __ or to mathematical or statistical __.”
A

reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and creativity

goals

logic, laws

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45
Q

Concepts are F__

•C__ influences category decisions

•Cup or bowl? (Labov, 1973)
–No clear __
–C__ (what was in the container) shifted category judgments
•Concepts are d__

A

flexible

context

boundary

context

dynamic

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46
Q

Cortical Areas Related to Naming Deficits

__ __ damage can cause impairments in identifying and/or retrieving information about __ AND __ objects

A

temporal lobe

living, nonliving

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47
Q

Evidence from patients with selective naming deficits for different types of concepts suggests that information about natural kinds (__) and artifactual kinds (non-living) are stored in __ parts of the brain.

Converging evidence from patients with brain damage to different areas of the temporal lobe, and PET imaging from healthy controls showed consistent organization of semantic memory: nonliving things stored in the __ ___ __ __ and living things stored in the __ __ ___ __.

Alternate explanations for selective deficits of living or nonliving things include the ___-___ theory and the __ ___ __ Hypothesis

A

living, non-living

different

left posterior temporal cortex

left anterior temporal lobe

sensory functional
organized unitary content

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48
Q

How does someone really know something?

•Knowledge = \_\_ \_\_ \_\_ 
–Subject knows that ‘\_\_’ (p) is true IF  
i.p is \_\_
ii.S \_\_ that p
iii.S is \_\_ in believing that p
  • True p = The world _ the way _ says it is.
  • Belief = __ p is true.
  • Justification = e__ d__, t__, d__
A

true justified belief

proposition
true
believes
justified

is P

accept

empirical data, testimony, deduction

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49
Q
  • Justification requires __.
  • The better your __ knowledge, the easier it is to recognize __.
  • No scientific theory is absolutely __, but __ thinking and the __ method make science __-____.
  • Established scientific theories are probably ___ correct, but not __.
A

evidence

background, errors

certain, skeptical, scientific, self-correcting

approximately, infallible

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50
Q

Tools for Critical (Skeptical) Thinking

  1. ___ confirmation of the “facts”.
  2. Substantive debate by __.
  3. There are no __; at most experts.
  4. Don’t get overly attached to your ideas (__ __)
A

independent

experts

authorities

confirmation bias

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51
Q

•Confirmation bias – do not favor a hypothesis just because you __ it or you __ it to be true.

•De-personalize the debate:
–Consider questions, evidence, and arguments as i__ a__ objects that are not the personal property of any one thinker, but are rather __ property, and the subject of dispassionate contemplation.

–Criticize the __ and not the __ who defends a position! (This is the so-called __ ___ fallacy.)

–Arguments from __ carry little weight.

A

formulated, want

impersonal abstract

communal

position, person

ad hominem

authority

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52
Q

Tools for Critical Thinking

  1. __ working hypotheses
  2. T__, f__ hypotheses
  3. Q__ when possible
  4. Use __ experiments w/ __.
  5. Use valid l__ and s__ methods.
  6. Occam’s Razor - KISS
    - explain
A

multiple

testable, falsifiable

quantify

designed, controls

logical, statistical

the simplest of competing theories be preferred to the more complex
(keep it simple and short)

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53
Q

Fallacies of Logic and Rhetoric

  • Logical fallacies: mistaken steps in __, p__ are identified correctly, but the attempted __ transitions among those p__ are not made properly.
  • Rhetorical fallacies are __. They don’t even identify the __ on which the argument at hand should be concentrating. The person is trying to __ the audience.
A

reasoning, propositions, inferential, propositions

worse
propositions
deceive

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54
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Argumentum ad hominem (at the __)

Attacking the __ instead of the __.

ex: Hilary Clinton and Sarah Huckabee

A

person

arguer, argument

Hillary Clinton is a nasty woman or Sarah Huckabee Sanders is fat

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55
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Argument from authority

Saying that because an __ says it, your argument must be __.

ex: urban meyer

A

authority, true

OSU is #1 bc Urban Meyer says that this is the best OSU football team ever

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56
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Argument from adverse consequences (appeal to __)

Premise asserts ___ to divert from the actual argument

ex: abuse trial

A

fear

consequences

Defendant must be found guilty of abuse, otherwise other men will abuse their wives

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57
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Appeal to ignorance

Whatever has not been __ is true. I don’t know ‘X’ so ‘Y’ must be true.

ex: UFOs

A

disproven

No evidence that UFOs are NOT visiting earth, so UFOs exist.

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58
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Special pleading

Making an __ when the original claim is proven false

ex: psychic

A

exception

Psychic is disproven, but then says you have to believe for him to see the future

59
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Begging the question (circular reasoning)

The __ is included in the __

ex: death penalty, PHD’s

A

conclusion, premise

We must have the death penalty to discourage violentcrime.
PhDs are smart because they have PhDs.

60
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Strawman

___ an argument to make it easier to attack

ex: environmentalists

A

misrepresenting

Environmentalists care more about owls than people

61
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

False dichotomy

Only considering two __ when there’s a ___ of possibilities

ex: solution/problem

A

extremes, continuum

If you are not part ofthe solution, you are part of the problem

62
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Slippery slope

If __ happens, then horrible __ will happen, so we can’t let __ happen

ex: gay marriage

A

A, Z, A

If we allow gay marriage, then people will be able to marry animals

63
Q

Rhetorical Fallacies:

Equivocation (__ words)

__ language

ex: reduction in force

A

weasel

euphemistic

Reduction-In-Force. We are right-sizing, not down-sizing

64
Q

Logical Fallacies

Affirming the consequent

If _, then _. _. Therefore _.

A

A, B. B. A

65
Q

Logical Fallacies

Denying the antecedent (__ error)

If _, then _; Not _, therefore not _.

A

inverse

A, B. A. B.

66
Q

Logical Fallacies

Non sequitur (“It does not __”)

__ does not follow from its ___.

ex: God and nation

A

follow

conclusion, premises

Our nation will prevail because God is great

67
Q

Logical Fallacies

Correlation is not causation

A perceived __ between two variables does not mean that one ___ the other

ex: global warming and pirates

A

relationship, caused

In the last 200 years, global temperature increased & the number of pirates decreased. Pirates must cool the world

68
Q

Logical Fallacies

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (“It happened __, so it was __ by.”)

Like __ is not __, but with events instead of variables

ex: furnace

A

after, caused

correlation, causation

We never had a problem with the furnace until you moved in

69
Q

Decisions involve formulating and choosing courses of __, based on one’s __, using any __ that is available.

“Rational thinking is thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our __.”

A

action, goals, evidence

goals

70
Q

Humans as Rational Thinkers Expected Value Theory

•Expected __ theory is a normative theory

–Normative theory: prescribes what people __ do, not what they __ do

–__ theory: what they actually do)

•Every decision is viewed as a __
–The rational choice is to select the option with the highest __ __

A

value

should, actually

descriptive

gamble
expected value

71
Q

Expected Utility Theory

  • Expected utility theory is similar to expected value theory, just replace o__ “__” with s__ “__”
  • The rational choice is to select the option with the highest expected __.

-explains how people are __ adverse

A

objective value, subjective utility

utility

risk

72
Q

•People are loss __.
–Losses hurt more (≈_x) than gains satisfy.

  • This choice is still consistent with rationality!
  • __ Effects are more evidence for loss aversion
A

averse

2

framing

73
Q

To calculate expected value you need o__, p___, and how much they’re w__

o__ ( i ) occur with some p__ (pi.)

_ _ would say 50% of 3 million is rational

_ _ would say take the 1 million (subjective satisfaction)

A

outcomes, probabilities, worth

outcomes, probability

EV (expected value)

EU (expected utility)

74
Q

Humans as Irrational Thinkers (less-than-rational)

  • Decisions made under conditions of ___
  • __ and __ impact decision making
  • Heuristics – __ decision making strategies, but do not guarantee __ and may lead to less-than-optimal (__) decisions

•Biases
– __ to think a certain way that can lead to systematic __ from rationality

A

uncertainty

emotions and habits

general, success, irrational

tendencies, deviations

75
Q

Irrational Thinking Failures in gathering evidence

•Availability heuristic: basing __ on easily __ information

–Example: vacation/malaria
–Example: infrequent events

A

decisions, recalled

Avoiding a vacation spot because of memory of malaria outbreak

People overestimated risk of dying from infrequent events (botulism, tornado)

76
Q

Availability Heuristic: Dread Risk

•Dread risk: people are overly concerned about situations in which many people might be __/__

–Ex. 9/11
–Ex. vaccinations

A

killed/hurt

Post-9/11 decrease in air passengers, and increase of car fatalities

Failure to vaccinate children

77
Q

Irrational thinking: Biases Failures in gathering evidence

•Anchoring effects: the __ point from which we begin reasoning can affect our __.

–Problem A: 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8
•Median answer = __

–Problem B: 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
•Median answer = ___

  • Correct answer = ____
  • Starting point acts as a reference (__) for making the __.
A

starting, thinking

512

2250

40,320

anchor, estimate

78
Q

Anchoring can occur when the reference point is unrelated to the decision!

People asked “what are the last two digits of your social security number?”

People then asked “How much would you pay for this bottle of wine if you were to bid on it?”

Those who had __ social security number digits would bid __.

A

bigger, higher

79
Q

Irrational ThinkingFailures in using evidence

•Representativeness heuristic: tendency to give the greatest weight to occurrences that resemble or are similar to __ __.

•Ex: Which sequence of coin flips is most likely?
–H-T-H-T-H-T-H
–T-H-H-T-T-H-T
–H-H-H-H-H-H-H

–Probability is the __, but one “looks” more __ than the others

A

past events

same

random

80
Q

Irrational Thinking Failures in using evidence

•Confirmation (Myside) Bias: decisions based on our own __ instead of objective __. __ bias to choose the evidence you “like”

  1. People seek evidence to __ their position
  2. People disregard evidence that __ their view, and give more __ to evidence that supports their view
A

beliefs, evidence

selection

support

contradicts, weight

81
Q

Common Example of Confirmation Bias

•Illusory Correlations: people perceive a __ between variables, despite lack of objective __

–Examples:
•S__ and h__
•V__ and a__

A

relationship, evidence

sugar and hyperactivity

vaccines and autism

82
Q

Overcoming Confirmation Bias

  • Rational thinking is often ___ of measures of cognitive ability (__).
  • Tendency to avoid bias unrelated to __ ability!

•To avoid Confirmation Bias
–Actively construct alternative __ that would/could explain your position
–Seek ___ evidence

A

independent, intelligence

cognitive

hypotheses

disconfirming

83
Q

Irrational Thinking Failures in using evidence

•When we make decisions, frequently we draw a conclusion from __ pieces of information

•Inductive reasoning or statistical reasoning
–Depends on q\_\_ and q\_\_ of information
•Law of \_\_ numbers
•B\_\_ rates
•C\_\_ Fallacy
A

many

quantity, quality

large

base

conjunction

84
Q

Law of Large Numbers

•Small sample sizes do not yield ___ results
–The __ the sample of observations, the greater the chances that the result will match the true result

•Beware __ sample sizes!

A

generalizable

larger

small

85
Q

Base Rates

•Donald is a quiet man. Is he more likely to be a salesman or a librarian?

•People (even experts) do not take into account base rates when evaluating evidence
–Sales is a more common profession than librarian. ___, it’s more likely that Donald is a salesman

•Irrational because we substitute an estimate of __ with an estimate of __ (we use the ___ heuristic)

A

statistically

probability, similarity

representativeness

86
Q

Conjunction Fallacy

•85% of people chose option 2

•Probability of 2 events is NEVER __ than the probabilities of either event alone
Pr[Linda is a bank teller] = 0.8
Pr[Linda is a feminist] = 0.5
Pr[Linda is a bank teller and a feminist] = 0.8 x 0.5 = 0.4

•___ heuristic in action

A

larger

representativeness

87
Q

Framing Effects

  • Two alternative programs to combat a disease have been proposed: Treatment A and Treatment B. Which would you favor?”
  • Options with the SAME __ are preferred __, depending on how they are __.

•If the frame describes the choice in terms of __ (400 will die), decision makers tend to be __ __.
– they prefer to gamble to avoid the loss (__ __)

•If the frame describes the choice in terms of __ (save 200), decision makers tend to be __ __.
– they prefer to __ to what they already have

•Example: C__ ch__
when decisions were framed as __, people were loss aversive and chose a car with more options than when they were framed as __.

A

outcome, differently, framed

losses
risk seeking
loss averse

gains
risk averse
hold

consumer choice

deletions, additions

88
Q

•Induction is the capacity to extend knowledge to __ instances of a __.

•Move from s\_\_\_ o\_\_ to g\_\_ c\_\_
–Emerald #1 is green.
–Emerald #2 is green.   ...
–Emerald #N is green.
–No non-green emeralds have been observed so far.
–All emeralds are green.

•Essentialism: Category-based inferences for __ (bird, fish, rabbit), for __ __ (gold, cotton), and for __ __ (boy, girl, smart).

A

novel, category

specific observations, general conclusions

animals, natural substances, and social categories

89
Q
  • In Deduction, one assumes that __ are true and then seeks to determine what __ follow from the premises
  • Move from general premise to specific conclusions

ex: dog/mammal
ex2: tree/roots

A

premises, conclusions

general premise, specific conclusions

–If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.–This animal is a dog–It is a mammal

–All trees have roots.–This oak is a tree.–This oak has roots.

90
Q

S__–All trees have roots.–This oak is a tree.–This oak has roots.
•First two statements are __ (pieces of information)
•Last statement is the __

C__ R__–If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.–This animal is a dog–It is a mammal
•If A is the __
•Then B is the __

•Syllogistic and conditional reasoning can be used __

A

syllogisms
premises
conclusion

conditional reasoning
antecedent
consequent

together

91
Q

The Virtue of Valid Arguments

•An argument may be __ even though every proposition in it is __.
ex: aphrodite/invisible

•The virtue of valid arguments is not that they are guaranteed to be __, but that they are guaranteed to be __ ___.

A

valid, false
:All men are invisible.Aphrodite is a man.Aphrodite is invisible.

true, truth preserving

92
Q

Deduction: Sound Arguments

•“If there is a chain of argument, every link in the chain must work (including the __)
– not just most of them.”

•A sound argument is an argument that:
–Is d___ v___ AND
–All its p___ are true.
–Then the c___ must be true also. It is no less certain than the premises themselves.

A

premises

deductively valid
premises
conclusion

93
Q

Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent)

-If _ then _
_ is true so conclude that _ is true. (conclusion is __)

ex: dog/mammal

A

A, B

A, B, valid

If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. This animal is a dog. Conclusion: it is a mammal.

94
Q

Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent)

-If _ then _
_ is false so conclude that _ is false. (conclusion is __)

ex: dog/mammal

A

A, B

B, A, valid

If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. It is not a mammal. Conclusion: This animal is not a dog.

95
Q

Affirming the Consequent:

-If _ then _
_ is true, cannot conclude that _ is true. (conclusion is __)

ex: dog/mammal

A

A, B

B, A, invalid

If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. It is a mammal. Conclusion: this animal is a dog. (invalid)

96
Q

Denying the Antecedent:

-If _ then _.
_ is false, cannot conclude that _ is false.(conclusion is _)

ex: dog/mammal

A

A, B

A, B, invalid

If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. This animal is not a dog. Conclusion: this animal is not a mammal. (invalid)

97
Q

Content Effects in Deductive Reasoning

  • Logical validity depends only on the __ (or __) of the argument.
  • It does not depend on the specific __ of the statements.
  • However, people are systematically (and often erroneously) affected by the __.
A

structure, form

content

content

98
Q

Context Effects in Deductive Reasoning Four-Card Selection Task

•“If a card has a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other.”

–Card 1: H
–Card 2: E
–Card 3: 6
–Card 4: 7

•Which card(s) do you have to turn in order to determine whether or not the rule is true for this set of cards?

A

E and 7

99
Q

Drinking / Checking ID Version

•“If a person is drinking alcohol, he or she must be at least 21 years old.”
–Person 1:Drinking: ?Age: 16
–Person 2:Drinking: ?Age: 22
–Person 3:Drinking: Coke Age: ?
–Person 4:Drinking: Beer Age: ?

•Who has to be checked?

A

Person 1 and person 4

100
Q

Selection Task: Results

  • People make a lot of mistakes on the abstract (four-card) version of the task:–Card 1: H–Card 2: E–Card 3: 6–Card 4: 7
  • Almost everyone reasons correctly in the real-life versions!
  • Content effect: __ problems are harder than __ problems in deductive reasoning
A

abstract, concrete

101
Q

Belief Bias in Deductive Reasoning

  • Belief bias: We are more likely to accept an __ argument when the __ agrees with our beliefs
  • Similar to ___ bias

ex: Invalid, Believable (92%)
•No addictive things are inexpensive
•Some cigarettes are inexpensive.
•Therefore, some addictive things are not cigarettes.

A

invalid, conclusion

confirmation

102
Q

Theories of Deductive Reasoning:

Formal Rules Theory

  • Hypothesis: Each person has m__ l__, an internal set of __ logical rules and a set of __ for using them.
  • Prediction: The rules should apply to every task with the same logical __.
  • But there are c__ e__ on reasoning. (not a good theory)
A

mental logic
abstract
processes

structure

content effects

103
Q

Theories of Deductive Reasoning:

Memory Cuing Theory

  • Hypothesis: Each person has a large __ of specific __ stored in memory.
  • This theory has the opposite problem to the __ __ __.
  • The scenarios are too __ and cannot easily account for the human ability to reason about __ situations.
A

collection, scenarios

formal rules theory

specific, unfamiliar

104
Q

Theories of Deductive Reasoning

Mental Models

•Deductive reasoning requires building a mental model

–Mental model: representation of a __; how things __ in the world

Reasoning is easier when it’s easier to build a mental model:
–C__ problems
–Only __ mental model is required
–When the __ is stated first (e.g. You may see the movie, if you finish your homework)

A

state, work

concrete
one
consequent

105
Q

Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas

•We use pragmatic reasoning schemas instead of __ memory or __ __ of logic, for some __ situations

–Schemas for p__, o__.

Modus Ponens/modus tollens
If A, then B. A is true so B
•If you want to use the iPad, then you must first make your bed.
•If a worker is injured on the job, then employer must pay medical bills.

  • Abstract Wason 4-card selection task is harder than ‘concrete’ selection task because abstract form does not fit any __ __ schema
  • Training examples from f__, c__ schemas improved abstract selection task performance more than training in a__, f__ logic
A

episodic, formal rules, learned

permission, obligation

pragmatic reasoning

familiar, concrete
abstract, formal

106
Q

Dual Process Theoriesof Reasoning

  • System 1•F__ •A__•E__•U__•H__ processes
  • System 2•S__•E__•L__•C__•A__ processes
  • We use System _ most of the time
  • System _ can override System _, provided the person has the k__ and the o__ to deploy it.
A

fast, automatic, emotional, unconscious, heuristic processes

slow, effortful, logical, conscious, analytical processes

system 1
2, 1
knowledge, opportunity

107
Q

Are we Rational or Irrational? Irrational: D___

•Person’s inability to think rationally despite possessing adequate __. Why?
–Lack of c__ processing (c__ m__)
–Lack of u__ (knowledge of p__, l__ & scientific __)
–R__ error
–H__ and e__

•Heuristics and biases are cognitive __

A

Dysrationalia

intelligence

cognitive (cognitive miser)

understanding (probability, logic, scientific inference)

random

habits and emotions

illusions

108
Q

Are we Rational or Irrational?

We are Irrational, but it’s ok…

•Human reasoning doesn’t have to be __, it just have to be “__ __”

•Heuristics and biases are __
–F__ and f__ heuristics: s__ cognitive mechanisms can make decisions as well as c__ statistical models

A

optimal, good enough

adaptive

fast, frugal

simple, complex

109
Q

Bounded Rationality

  • Decision making is constrained by limited __, cognitive __, and t__.
  • Satisficing (s__ + s__): pick a strategy that meets our standards for an adequate (not __) s__.
A

information, ability, time

satisfy+suffice

optimal, solution

110
Q

Decision Making and Happiness

maximizers: exhaustively seek the b__, c__ decisions with others, expend more t__ and e__, __ with outcomes.
satisficers: a__ good enough, don’t obsess over other o__, can move on after d__, __ with outcomes.

A

best, compare, time/energy, unhappier

accept, options, deciding, happier

111
Q

The paradox of choice(or why choice makes people miserable)

  1. R__ and a__ r__–We are less satisfied with the result of our choice than we would be if we had fewer options
  2. O__ c__–“Commitment” reduces the satisfaction we get from our choice
  3. E__ of e__–We expect perfection, when we have more options
  4. S__-b__–You are responsible if you are dissatisfied, when there are many options
A

regret, anticipated regret

opportunity costs

escalation of expectations

self-blame

112
Q

Definition of a Problem

•“A person is confronted with a problem when he __ something and does not know immediately what series of __ he can perform to get it”
–Present (or initial) state – not s__.
–G__ state – more satisfactory.
–Operators (or moves) – change one __ into a different __.
–Constraints – r__, r__, b__…
–Solution – a sequence of v__ moves from the i__ state to the g__.

A

wants, actions

satisfactory

goal

state, state

restrictions, rules, budgets

valid, initial, goal

113
Q

The Tower of Hanoi

  • __ state: All disks on peg 1
  • __ state: All disks on peg 3

•C__:
–Move only one disk at a time
–May not place a larger disk on top of a smaller one

  • S__: Board configurations
  • M__ / O__: Transitions between states
  • S__: A path to the goal state (#8)
A

initial

goal

constraints

states

moves/operators

solution

114
Q

Well- vs. Ill-Defined Problems

•Well-defined problem: the __ state, g__ state, possible o__, and c__ are all known

.•Ill-defined problem: one or more components are not __ at the onset. Part of the problem is to figure out the __ elements.

A

initial, goal, operators, constraints

specified, missing

115
Q

How Do People Solve Problems?Different Perspectives

1.“Business as usual”/Analytical view:
–Emphasizes the role of k__, a__, and h__.
–__ cognitive processing

2.Insight (Aha!) view/Special Process view:
–“Think outside the box!”
–Special process(es): I__, i__, …

•Endpoints on a c__, not sharp d__.

A

knowledge, algorithms, heuristics
ordinary

insight, incubation

continuum, divisions

116
Q

How do people solve problems? Approaches to solving problems:

  • Weak methods: g__, non-__ approaches
  • Strong methods: t__-d__, d__-specific approaches (__); apply d__ to the problem
  • Strong and weak problem solving methods are on a __ reflecting the __ possessed by the person working on the problem
A

general, non-specific

top-down, domain-specific (expertise), directly

continuum, knowledge

117
Q

•For some problems, a __ sequence of moves is available that __ a solution

–Algorithms: a set of operations that always produces the __ solution
–Ex. Math operations, formulas (__ methods)

A

specified, guarantees

correct

strong

118
Q

•Exhaustive search of the problem space (__ method)

–Construct a word out of YRT vs. GMAANRAS

–Combinatorial Explosion: Exhaustive search results in 40,320 possibilities!

–Tic-tac-toe: exhaustive search of the problem space is feasible

–Chess: problem space has 1040 positions and 10 to the 120games

•Search must be __ and __.

A

weak

guided, selective

119
Q

__ Methods
•Heuristics: rules of thumb; do not __ a solution, but may __ a solution

–H__ c__ – compare current & goal states and pick an operator that makes progress toward the goal

–W__ b__ – start at the goal and work towards the initial state

–M__-e__ analysis – compare current state to the goal state. What means do I have to make these more alike?

A

weak

guarantee, facilitate

hill climbing

working backward

means-end analysis

120
Q

Problem Solving Research Methods: Verbal Protocols

  • Please think aloud!
  • SEND+MOREMONEY
  • “OK, let’s try D=1. Then Y=E+1…”

•Verbal protocols: t__ and a__ of people’s verbalizations as they solve a problem

B__ K__ Can Narrow the Search Dramatically

A

transcription, analysis

background knowledge

121
Q

Strong Methods: ExpertisePattern Recognition

•For a chess master, playing chess is at a __-__ pattern recognition (memory) process.
–Many times, the masters simply looked at the board and saw or recognized the good moves.
–Masters focused on what turned out to be the best move.
–Less-skilled players spent time thinking about moves that the masters never considered.

•Experts can use __ methods, which are acquired through l__ (10 year rule!)

A

top-down

strong, learning

122
Q

Expert v. Novice Differences in Problem Solving

•Novices focus on __ features
–Pulleys, mass

•Experts focus on underlying __
–F=MA

A

surface

principles

123
Q

•Analogies are a commonly used strategy in problem solving
–Relationship between two __ situations, problems or concepts
•Base: the __ situation
•Target: the __ situation
•The __ is applied to the __
•Strong & weak methods on a __

A

similar

familiar
novel
base, target

continuum

124
Q

“Stages” of Analogy-Making

  • E__ (representation building) of the t__ problem
  • R__ of an appropriate analog (or __) from LTM
  • M__ the base to the target to find corresponding elements
  • T__ of knowledge from the base to the target
A

encoding, target

retrieval, base

mapping

transfer

125
Q

Analogical Transfer
•Target problem: Radiation
•Base problem: Military
•Three groups of subjects:
–Control: Solve problem (radiation)–Transfer/No Hint: Read/remember military problem, later solve radiation problem
–Transfer/Hint: Read/remember military, get hint, solve radiation
•HINT: In solving problem, you may find that one of the stories you read before will give you a hint for solving the problem

Analog Retrieval is Hard
•Transfer participants knew about the Military Problem; Control participants did not.
•Days later, all were given the Radiation Problem to solve. Three exp. groups:
–No memory: ~10% solved the Radiation Problem
–Remember military: ~30% solved it
–Remember military + Hint: ~75% solved it

•Conclusion: The main obstacle was to __ the __. __ was easier.

A

retrieve, source

mapping

126
Q

Why is Retrieval hard?

•We think __, but transfer requires __ thinking
–It’s easier to retrieve a base problem when the __ __ are similar to the target problem

•But, surface similarity can be __
–Mapping is improved when the solution of the base problem in encoded in g__, s__ terms…

•But, it can be difficult to __ the base problem when it is encoded in general terms

A

concretely, abstract

surface features

misleading
general, schematic

retrieve

127
Q

Business-as-Usual vs. Special Process Analytic vs. Insight

•Analytic problems: Finding the solution typically involves i__, s__-_-__ progress
–Examples: Tower of Hanoi, chess, algebra
–“Business as usual” information processing

•Insight problems: The solution often comes “in a flash of __”
–__! Experience
–Often preceded by an __, where there appear to be no options left to try.

A

incremental, step-by-step

insight

aha!

impasse

128
Q

Insight: History
•Thorndike: Animals use t__-__-___ to escape puzzle boxes, not __.

•G__ psychology’s response to Thorndike
–Problems are like perceptual phenomenon that can be __ into solvable representations
–Thorndike’s cats had no chance to __ the problem
–Apes show “__” when they have opportunity to __ the problem

A

trial-and-error, insight

gestalt
restructured
restructure
insight, restructure

129
Q

Examples: The Nine-Dot Problem

  • Connect all nine dots by drawing four straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper.
  • Hint: Think out of the box!
  • __ makes finding the solution difficult
A

fixation

130
Q

Examples: The Candle Problem

  • Attach the candle to a wooden wall, so that you can read by its light, using only the materials shown in the picture.
  • F___ f___ makes finding the solution difficult
A

functional fixedness

131
Q

Problem Restructuring

  • Gestalt psychologists: More than one __ is possible
  • Requires a new ___ of the entire problem situation after an __
  • Often sudden. ___!
A

interpretation

conceptualization, impasse

aha!

132
Q

“Warmth” Ratings Evidence for “Special Process”?

analytic problems: __ progress

insight problems: sudden __

A

gradual

increase

133
Q

Evidence for the Business-as-Usual View

  • Insight requires some __ knowledge (e.g. Kohler’s apes)
  • Ordinary cognitive processes (__) can lead to Insight; an impasse does not trigger a s__ i__ process
  • The fact that a problem is solved in a sudden Aha! does not mean that no progress has been made __ the Aha!
A

prior- apes that had been in captivity whole life couldn’t use branch insight to solve problem

recognition, special insight

before

134
Q

Hybrid Model

•Incorporates __ & __ __ views

A

analytical, special process

135
Q

The Science of Creativity

•We will approach creativity as a __-__ process which can be __ studied

A

top-down

objectively

136
Q

Problem Solving and Creative Thinking and Novelty

•To call something a problem, the situation must be __. Hence creative thinking…
–It’s not a problem if you can recall a __ to a previously solved problem.

•Creative thinking occurs when a person __ produces something that is __ to them.
–The critical element in calling some outcome creative is that it be __

A

novel

solution

intentionally, novel

new

137
Q

Watson & Crick: Conclusions

  • Even though the product revolutionized genetics, the cognitive process of discovery was relatively __.
  • Analogical transfer: Watson & Crick used Linus Pauling’s helical model of alpha-keratin as the __ for their model of DNA.
  • Incremental progress: Early models were incorrect, so Watson & Crick tested new __ and acquired new __.
A

straightforward

foundation

hypotheses, information

138
Q

Guernica: Conclusions

•Even though the final product is exceptional, Guernica shows no evidence of extraordinary c__ p__.
– no leaps outside the box.

•Picasso was __ on his own earlier work and on that of his predecessors.

A

cognitive process

building

139
Q

What can we conclude from two examples?

•In many cases, creativity involves “__ thought”
–__-__ knowledge
–I__ progress
–Hard work (__ practice & the 10-year rule)

A

ordinary

top-down
incremental
deliberate

140
Q

The 10-Year Rule in Creativity

•__+ years of __ to a discipline are required for world-class achievement.

•Historical studies (Hayes, 1989; etc.):
–76 composers – 500 masterworks
–131 painters
–Scientists (Raskin, 1936)
–Mathematicians (Gustin, 1985)
–Physicians (Patel & Groen, 1991)
A

10

commitment

141
Q

Expertise and Talent

•Talent (or “gift”) for a domain
– innate capacity to function well within the domain.

  • Deliberate __ differentiated between musicians’ skill levels, not __
  • Criticism: research explains the __ to achieve world-class skill but not the __
  • See __-seeking hypothesis
A

practice, talent

how, why

niche

142
Q

Information Processing Approaches

•Creative thinking as ___-__ problem solving
–Creative thinking builds on the __.
–It is dependent on __.
–It advances in __ steps rather than through great __ outside the box.

A

heuristic-based

past

expertise

small, leaps

143
Q

Heuristics in (Creative) Scientific Thinking

•__ studied heuristics in four molecular biology labs

•Heuristics (& __ processes) are important in creativity:
–Apply heuristics that generate ideas for __ experimentation.
–If the results are unexpected, (> half were unexpected!), apply other heuristics to repair or __ the hypothesis

•__ researchers were more likely to abandon their previous hypotheses in the face of negative findings than __ experienced researchers because the experienced researchers were used to negative results.

A

Dunbar

social
further
change

experienced, less

144
Q

Flow and Creativity

•M__ Csikszentmihalyi, a leader in creativity research & positive psychology

•When do people feel happy?
–Watching TV?
–Altered states via pot or alcohol?
–Buying expensive toys, clothes?

•Creativity and the challenge of discovery provide __ motivating rewards for some people

Flow and Optimal Experience
•Flow: a state of heightened f__ and i__ in activities such as art, play, work
•Most likely to be experienced when a person is c__ and has the s__ to meet the challenge!

A

mihaly

intrinsically

focus, immersion

challenged, skills

Memory and Cognition Test 3 (1 decks)

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