Test 3 Flashcards
__ is a mental representation of an object (or event or pattern) [i__]
Concept
internal
__ consists of the objects in the world that we consider to be representatives of the __; a class of similar objects [e__]
Category
concept
external
With concepts and categories we are mostly talking about __ memory and knowledge rather than __.
-o__ and their p__, s__ and sc__
Semantic, episodic
objects and their properties, scripts, schemas
Why we need concepts:
–__ knowledge
–Help us make __
functional
inferences
Characteristics of concepts:
–Can be independent of __
–Can be __
–__ types
language
hierarchical
different
- Concepts are __ Knowledge
ex: dogs, f__
functional
what dogs eat, what they look like, what they do , facts.
- Concepts Help Us Make __
- We can make __ about a ___ instance, if we can put it into a __ category
- __ instances inherit the category’s __
- Categories are not just based on __ similarity
inferences
inferences, novel, familiar
novel, characteristics
perceptual
Characteristics of Concepts Can Be Independent of __
•Infant and young children have concepts __ they have language
language
before
Conceptual Hierarchy:
•__ordinate level:
–Most __
–Ex: T_, A__
•B__ level:
–I__
–Ex: C_, D__
•__ordinate level:
–Most specific
–Ex: L__
superordinate, general, tree, animal
basic, intermediate, cat, dog
subordinate, specific, Labrador
People process different types of concepts differently
–N__ concepts: based on definitions set by __
ex: •__ NUMBER, B__, S__
nominal
humans
even number, bachelor, square
People process different types of concepts differently
–N__-kind concepts: Objects found in the __ world
ex: •A__, P__, I__, M__
natural
natural
animal, plant, island, mountain
People process different types of concepts differently
–A__ concepts: Objects made by __.
•F__, V__, A__
artifactual
humans
furniture, vehicle, art
Types of concepts based on use or function:
–__-derived – foods to eat on a diet; things to take from the house if there’s a fire [see ad hoc categories]
–__ categories – rivalry, hunting
–__ categories – visits, dates, shopping trips
–__ categories – Millennials, Gen-X, Republican, Democrat
goal
relational
event
social
Three views of concepts:
- __ View: Concepts based on rules
- object fits __ or it doesn’t
2.F__-r__: Concepts based on similarity
- E__: Concepts based on similarity
- to an __/__
Classical
-rule
family-resemblance
exemplar
-event/episode
Classical View
•N__ and j__ sufficient features
–Example: __
•Closed geometrical figure
•2 dimensional
•Composed of 3 lines
–Example: __
•Male
•Unmarried
•Human
necessary and jointly sufficient
triangle
bachelor
How do we learn new categories?
•81 Cards: 4 dimensions; 3 features within a dimension
•A rule defines the “correct” category
–Three shapes + black
–Either 2 borders or 3 gray shapes
- Subject picks cards and tries to guess the rule
- Conjunctive or disjunctive rules
•Conjunctive concept:
–Defined by a rule that only uses the logical connectives __ and __.
–Ex: (__ = three) AND (__ = black)
–__ to learn
•Disjunctive concept:
–Defined by a rule that uses ___-__ (and may also use __ and __).
–Ex: EITHER 2 __ OR 3 __.
–__ to learn
and, not
number, color
easier
either-or, and, not
borders, shapes
harder
Implications of Classical View
- __ specifying __ features define categories
- Concepts are NOT __ of specific examples.
•Category membership is __ __.
Examples:
–triangles
–triangles vs. circles
rules, required
memories
clear cut
All triangles are equally triangular
There are no objects that we can’t decide if they are triangles or circles.
Family Resemblance Theory Background
•Some concepts can’t be defined by __ and __ features (classical view)
ex–G__, p__, s__
•Category members have a __ __(varying degree of __) to one another
necessary, sufficient
games, pornography, superheroes
family resemblance, similarity
Family-Resemblance Theory
Thought of by __ __
- Degree of __ among items determines __ structure
- All instances of that concept may not share one single __ __.
- However, the more ___ features an item has, the more __ an example of the concept it is
Eleanor Rosch
similarity, category
common feature
characteristic, typical
Family-Resemblance Theory Graded Conceptual Structure
- Graded structure: certain category members are rated as more __ or ___ of the category than others
- Prototype: the __ representative of a concept; it possesses many __ concept features (the “__ of __” of the cluster)
- Items with minimal overlap with other items are __ members
typical, representative
best, typical
center of mass
peripheral
Family-Resemblance Theory Graded Conceptual Structure
•Evidence for __-based __ structure of concepts:
–__ ratings
–Faster verification of __ members (more __)
•Participants rated the extent to which basic-level examples represented their idea of the __ category
–1 = very good example
–7= poor example
ex: fruits
prototype, internal
typicality
typical, accessible
superordinate
people rated an orange as a 1 and an olive as a 6.
Evidence for Family Resemblance Similarity-Based Categorization
•People listed attributes of objects in Category (BIRD)
–Robin, Bluejay: feathers, flies, nests in trees, sings, eats worms
–Penguin: feathers, wings
- Positive correlation between ___ of characteristic features & __ ratings
- __ members share __ features
number, typicality
prototypical, characteristic
___ of Category Members
•Typicality:
–High (e.g, robin)
–Medium (eagle)
–Low (e.g, penguin)
•True/False: Decide whether each word is a member of a given category
.•Prototypical members of a category:
–Most accessible for __
–Play a role in __ structure
accessibility
recall
category
Exemplar-Based View
•Alternative theory to classical and family-resemblance theories
Classical View:
– __-based; __ rules easier than __ rules
Family-Resemblance:
– similarity to __
Exemplar-Based View:
–No single __ __ of a concept
–Concepts are based on __ in memory called __.
-New items categorized based on similarity to __.
rule, conjunctive, disjunctive
prototype
mental representation
episodes, exemplars, exemplars
Memory for Specific Instances (__ instead of __)
- Memory for the __ training exemplars is maintained, even after a more __ representation of the category has been developed.
- Amnesiacs with difficulties with episodic memory can categorize stimuli accurately (__ memory), even if they can’t recognize the stimuli from training (__, __ memory)
- It is problematic for Exemplar Theory if concept learning takes place independently of __ of specific items
- We use both __ and __.
exemplars, prototypes
specific, abstract
implicit, explicit, episodic
memory
exemplars, prototypes
•Each theory has difficulty explaining some aspect of __ __.
–Prototypes and exemplars both rely on __ for categorization
–BUT – sometimes, surface __ is less important than other factors in categorization
•E___
concept formation
similarity
similarity
essentialism
Specific vs Placeholder Essentialism
•Specific essentialism:
–A category essence is __ and contributes to the __ and __ of the category label.
–Example: The essence of water is H2O.
•Placeholder essentialism:
–A person believes that there is some __ that holds a category together, without knowing just what that __ is.
–Ex: A person believes that all samples of water share some inherent, non-obvious property.
known
meaning, use
essence, essence
Psychological Essentialism Characteristics of Categories
Our focus is psychological placeholder essentialism.
•Some categories have an underlying true __ that can’t be __ directly
–Membership has an i__, g__, or b__ basis
–Membership is s__
–Membership is __-__-__
–EXAMPLE: Preschoolers who were told that a baby kangaroo went to live with goats still predicted the kangaroo would hop and have a pouch
•Essentialism is a r__ h__.
nature, observed
innate, genetic, biological
stable
all-or-none
reasoning heuristic
Evidence for Essentialism: __ Labels Can Trump __ Similarity
•4-yr-old kids and adults
•20 triplets of pictures
•The target shared a category label with one item, but was drawn to resemble the other. (aka: bird drawn to look like similar to bat)
•Property projection test:
–Bat –> feeds milk to babies
–Flamingo –>mashed-up food
–What does Bird feed to babies?
•Underlying __ outweigh __ similarity, even for __…there’s a developmental shift from __ to __ features
category, perceptual
essences, surface
children
surface, essential
•Essentialist: __-__-__ category membership
Vs.
•Prototypes: __ structure
Can people use essentialist information to make category decisions and still show graded structure effects?
YES, Prototype & Essentialist Categories CAN __-__.
ex: Grandmothers
all-or-none
graded
co-exist
GRANDMOTHER has a biological, rule-based definition, BUT some grammies are more grandmotherly than others…People may represent both the essential and prototypicality of concepts simultaneously
Development
- Does how we __ the world change as we get older?
- Perhaps not surprisingly, __.
•Children’s concepts shift from use of __, __ features to use of __ features to categorize __, __ kinds
ex: Can a Raccoon Change Into a Skunk?
- what did younger kids say? older kids?
- Developmental shift from __ to __ features for biological kinds.
- All ages willing to change categories for __.
conceptualize, yes
perceptual, surface
essentialist
natural, biological
younger kids used surface features and said it can become a skunk and as they got older there was a developmental shift from characteristic to essential features.
characteristic, essential
artifacts.
Developmental shift from ___ to ___ features
- 5.5-10 yr olds shown descriptions of people or objects
- Can this person be a robber?
- Younger children used __ features
- Older children used __ features
- Shift to __ features for non-biological (__) categories
characteristic, defining
surface
defining
essential
nominal
Hierarchical Semantic Network
- C__ & Q__: First model of semantic memory
- Each concept is represented by a __ in memory
- Concepts are related by __
Collins and Quillian
node
links
•Models of semantic memory
- How knowledge is __
- How knowledge is used in __ and __.
structured
thinking, reasoning
Processing in Semantic Networks
•Cognitive __
–Ex. All birds fly, so… _____
•To answer a question, search memory
–Each word activates its __
–Do the two paths to the root __?
economy
All birds fly, so attach fly to ‘bird’ and not ‘robin’
node
intersect
How to Test Hierarchical Organization in Semantic Memory?
•Category __ tasks
•Reaction times (RT): T or F
–Faster for __ than __.
–Faster for information __ together (fewer __)
•__ tests (fastest to slowest reaction times)
–“A canary is a bird”
–“A canary is a fish”
•__ tests (fastest to slowest reaction times)
–Level 0: “A canary can sing”
–Level 1: “A canary can fly”
–Level 2: “A canary has skin”
verification
true, false
closer
links
concept
property
Problems with C&Q’s Semantic Nets
•The domain of “__ __” is a unique taxonomy
•Verification time depends on other factors (__, __).
–“A canary is a bird.” verifies __ than “A penguin is a bird.”
•___ effects often go away when these factors are included:
–“A shark can move.” verifies __ than “An animal can move.”
•Reverse distance effects for __ statements:
–“Canary is a tiger” __ than “Canary is a carrot”
living things
typicality, frequency
faster
hierarchical
faster
false
slower
Spreading-Activation Model
- __ network (not ___)
- Connections vary on __ strength
- __ spreads along links to explain __ effects
- Explains why “Canary is a bird” verifies __ than a “Penguin is a bird”
associative, hierarchical
associative
activation, priming
faster
Semantic Memory in ACT-R
- Seeing, hearing, reading a word activates the __ in memory
- __ activation
•Activation speed and strength depend on:
–Number of __ on a __.
–Activation __
ex: dodo bird
concept
spreading
links, node
frequency
- The dodo, a bird, was discovered in Australia
- The dodo does not fly
- The dodo eats flowers
•Maybe memory only uses the global __-___ of words to build concepts?
–Sematic memory is constructed out of context-based __ among words, instead of meaning or features
–__ similarity of words define the relations between any two concepts
Hyperspace Analogue to Language (HAL)
•Input 300,000,000 words from internet discussion groups
•Window of processing = 10 words
•Examples:
–__ and __ are conceptually linked because they appear in similar __ (are close to similar words in the 10-word window)
co-occurences
associations
contextual
road and street
contexts
The Basic Level
•Categories are ___ organized
•The Basic Level is psychologically “___”
–How we (generally) __
–Most __ level; not too __ or too __.
–Cross-__ and cross-__ preference
hierarchically
privileged
communicate
informative
general, specific
cross-cultural, cross-linguistic
Semantic Memory and Expertise
•__ changes the level used to label objects
–Bird experts used the __ level, but novices used the __ level
•Basic Level & categorization changes with __
–Three kinds of tree experts classified trees differently, depending on their __
expertise
subordinate, basic
goals
objectives
Concepts are Flexible
•Ad hoc or Improvised Concepts
–Sometimes we make __ on the __
–__, and not dependent on a stable concept in _ _ _.
categories, fly
situational, LTM
Rational Thinking
- “Within cognitive science, thinking is often used to refer to r__, d__ m__, p__ s__, and c__.”
- “Rational thinking is thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our __.”
- “The term rational thinking can also be applied to thinking that conforms to the rules of __ or to mathematical or statistical __.”
reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and creativity
goals
logic, laws
Concepts are F__
•C__ influences category decisions
•Cup or bowl? (Labov, 1973)
–No clear __
–C__ (what was in the container) shifted category judgments
•Concepts are d__
flexible
context
boundary
context
dynamic
Cortical Areas Related to Naming Deficits
__ __ damage can cause impairments in identifying and/or retrieving information about __ AND __ objects
temporal lobe
living, nonliving
Evidence from patients with selective naming deficits for different types of concepts suggests that information about natural kinds (__) and artifactual kinds (non-living) are stored in __ parts of the brain.
Converging evidence from patients with brain damage to different areas of the temporal lobe, and PET imaging from healthy controls showed consistent organization of semantic memory: nonliving things stored in the __ ___ __ __ and living things stored in the __ __ ___ __.
Alternate explanations for selective deficits of living or nonliving things include the ___-___ theory and the __ ___ __ Hypothesis
living, non-living
different
left posterior temporal cortex
left anterior temporal lobe
sensory functional
organized unitary content
How does someone really know something?
•Knowledge = \_\_ \_\_ \_\_ –Subject knows that ‘\_\_’ (p) is true IF i.p is \_\_ ii.S \_\_ that p iii.S is \_\_ in believing that p
- True p = The world _ the way _ says it is.
- Belief = __ p is true.
- Justification = e__ d__, t__, d__
true justified belief
proposition
true
believes
justified
is P
accept
empirical data, testimony, deduction
- Justification requires __.
- The better your __ knowledge, the easier it is to recognize __.
- No scientific theory is absolutely __, but __ thinking and the __ method make science __-____.
- Established scientific theories are probably ___ correct, but not __.
evidence
background, errors
certain, skeptical, scientific, self-correcting
approximately, infallible
Tools for Critical (Skeptical) Thinking
- ___ confirmation of the “facts”.
- Substantive debate by __.
- There are no __; at most experts.
- Don’t get overly attached to your ideas (__ __)
independent
experts
authorities
confirmation bias
•Confirmation bias – do not favor a hypothesis just because you __ it or you __ it to be true.
•De-personalize the debate:
–Consider questions, evidence, and arguments as i__ a__ objects that are not the personal property of any one thinker, but are rather __ property, and the subject of dispassionate contemplation.
–Criticize the __ and not the __ who defends a position! (This is the so-called __ ___ fallacy.)
–Arguments from __ carry little weight.
formulated, want
impersonal abstract
communal
position, person
ad hominem
authority
Tools for Critical Thinking
- __ working hypotheses
- T__, f__ hypotheses
- Q__ when possible
- Use __ experiments w/ __.
- Use valid l__ and s__ methods.
- Occam’s Razor - KISS
- explain
multiple
testable, falsifiable
quantify
designed, controls
logical, statistical
the simplest of competing theories be preferred to the more complex
(keep it simple and short)
Fallacies of Logic and Rhetoric
- Logical fallacies: mistaken steps in __, p__ are identified correctly, but the attempted __ transitions among those p__ are not made properly.
- Rhetorical fallacies are __. They don’t even identify the __ on which the argument at hand should be concentrating. The person is trying to __ the audience.
reasoning, propositions, inferential, propositions
worse
propositions
deceive
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Argumentum ad hominem (at the __)
Attacking the __ instead of the __.
ex: Hilary Clinton and Sarah Huckabee
person
arguer, argument
Hillary Clinton is a nasty woman or Sarah Huckabee Sanders is fat
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Argument from authority
Saying that because an __ says it, your argument must be __.
ex: urban meyer
authority, true
OSU is #1 bc Urban Meyer says that this is the best OSU football team ever
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Argument from adverse consequences (appeal to __)
Premise asserts ___ to divert from the actual argument
ex: abuse trial
fear
consequences
Defendant must be found guilty of abuse, otherwise other men will abuse their wives
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Appeal to ignorance
Whatever has not been __ is true. I don’t know ‘X’ so ‘Y’ must be true.
ex: UFOs
disproven
No evidence that UFOs are NOT visiting earth, so UFOs exist.
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Special pleading
Making an __ when the original claim is proven false
ex: psychic
exception
Psychic is disproven, but then says you have to believe for him to see the future
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Begging the question (circular reasoning)
The __ is included in the __
ex: death penalty, PHD’s
conclusion, premise
We must have the death penalty to discourage violentcrime.
PhDs are smart because they have PhDs.
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Strawman
___ an argument to make it easier to attack
ex: environmentalists
misrepresenting
Environmentalists care more about owls than people
Rhetorical Fallacies:
False dichotomy
Only considering two __ when there’s a ___ of possibilities
ex: solution/problem
extremes, continuum
If you are not part ofthe solution, you are part of the problem
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Slippery slope
If __ happens, then horrible __ will happen, so we can’t let __ happen
ex: gay marriage
A, Z, A
If we allow gay marriage, then people will be able to marry animals
Rhetorical Fallacies:
Equivocation (__ words)
__ language
ex: reduction in force
weasel
euphemistic
Reduction-In-Force. We are right-sizing, not down-sizing
Logical Fallacies
Affirming the consequent
If _, then _. _. Therefore _.
A, B. B. A
Logical Fallacies
Denying the antecedent (__ error)
If _, then _; Not _, therefore not _.
inverse
A, B. A. B.
Logical Fallacies
Non sequitur (“It does not __”)
__ does not follow from its ___.
ex: God and nation
follow
conclusion, premises
Our nation will prevail because God is great
Logical Fallacies
Correlation is not causation
A perceived __ between two variables does not mean that one ___ the other
ex: global warming and pirates
relationship, caused
In the last 200 years, global temperature increased & the number of pirates decreased. Pirates must cool the world
Logical Fallacies
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (“It happened __, so it was __ by.”)
Like __ is not __, but with events instead of variables
ex: furnace
after, caused
correlation, causation
We never had a problem with the furnace until you moved in
Decisions involve formulating and choosing courses of __, based on one’s __, using any __ that is available.
“Rational thinking is thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our __.”
action, goals, evidence
goals
Humans as Rational Thinkers Expected Value Theory
•Expected __ theory is a normative theory
–Normative theory: prescribes what people __ do, not what they __ do
–__ theory: what they actually do)
•Every decision is viewed as a __
–The rational choice is to select the option with the highest __ __
value
should, actually
descriptive
gamble
expected value
Expected Utility Theory
- Expected utility theory is similar to expected value theory, just replace o__ “__” with s__ “__”
- The rational choice is to select the option with the highest expected __.
-explains how people are __ adverse
objective value, subjective utility
utility
risk
•People are loss __.
–Losses hurt more (≈_x) than gains satisfy.
- This choice is still consistent with rationality!
- __ Effects are more evidence for loss aversion
averse
2
framing
To calculate expected value you need o__, p___, and how much they’re w__
o__ ( i ) occur with some p__ (pi.)
_ _ would say 50% of 3 million is rational
_ _ would say take the 1 million (subjective satisfaction)
outcomes, probabilities, worth
outcomes, probability
EV (expected value)
EU (expected utility)
Humans as Irrational Thinkers (less-than-rational)
- Decisions made under conditions of ___
- __ and __ impact decision making
- Heuristics – __ decision making strategies, but do not guarantee __ and may lead to less-than-optimal (__) decisions
•Biases
– __ to think a certain way that can lead to systematic __ from rationality
uncertainty
emotions and habits
general, success, irrational
tendencies, deviations
Irrational Thinking Failures in gathering evidence
•Availability heuristic: basing __ on easily __ information
–Example: vacation/malaria
–Example: infrequent events
decisions, recalled
Avoiding a vacation spot because of memory of malaria outbreak
People overestimated risk of dying from infrequent events (botulism, tornado)
Availability Heuristic: Dread Risk
•Dread risk: people are overly concerned about situations in which many people might be __/__
–Ex. 9/11
–Ex. vaccinations
killed/hurt
Post-9/11 decrease in air passengers, and increase of car fatalities
Failure to vaccinate children
Irrational thinking: Biases Failures in gathering evidence
•Anchoring effects: the __ point from which we begin reasoning can affect our __.
–Problem A: 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8
•Median answer = __
–Problem B: 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
•Median answer = ___
- Correct answer = ____
- Starting point acts as a reference (__) for making the __.
starting, thinking
512
2250
40,320
anchor, estimate
Anchoring can occur when the reference point is unrelated to the decision!
People asked “what are the last two digits of your social security number?”
People then asked “How much would you pay for this bottle of wine if you were to bid on it?”
Those who had __ social security number digits would bid __.
bigger, higher
Irrational ThinkingFailures in using evidence
•Representativeness heuristic: tendency to give the greatest weight to occurrences that resemble or are similar to __ __.
•Ex: Which sequence of coin flips is most likely?
–H-T-H-T-H-T-H
–T-H-H-T-T-H-T
–H-H-H-H-H-H-H
–Probability is the __, but one “looks” more __ than the others
past events
same
random
Irrational Thinking Failures in using evidence
•Confirmation (Myside) Bias: decisions based on our own __ instead of objective __. __ bias to choose the evidence you “like”
- People seek evidence to __ their position
- People disregard evidence that __ their view, and give more __ to evidence that supports their view
beliefs, evidence
selection
support
contradicts, weight
Common Example of Confirmation Bias
•Illusory Correlations: people perceive a __ between variables, despite lack of objective __
–Examples:
•S__ and h__
•V__ and a__
relationship, evidence
sugar and hyperactivity
vaccines and autism
Overcoming Confirmation Bias
- Rational thinking is often ___ of measures of cognitive ability (__).
- Tendency to avoid bias unrelated to __ ability!
•To avoid Confirmation Bias
–Actively construct alternative __ that would/could explain your position
–Seek ___ evidence
independent, intelligence
cognitive
hypotheses
disconfirming
Irrational Thinking Failures in using evidence
•When we make decisions, frequently we draw a conclusion from __ pieces of information
•Inductive reasoning or statistical reasoning –Depends on q\_\_ and q\_\_ of information •Law of \_\_ numbers •B\_\_ rates •C\_\_ Fallacy
many
quantity, quality
large
base
conjunction
Law of Large Numbers
•Small sample sizes do not yield ___ results
–The __ the sample of observations, the greater the chances that the result will match the true result
•Beware __ sample sizes!
generalizable
larger
small
Base Rates
•Donald is a quiet man. Is he more likely to be a salesman or a librarian?
•People (even experts) do not take into account base rates when evaluating evidence
–Sales is a more common profession than librarian. ___, it’s more likely that Donald is a salesman
•Irrational because we substitute an estimate of __ with an estimate of __ (we use the ___ heuristic)
statistically
probability, similarity
representativeness
Conjunction Fallacy
•85% of people chose option 2
•Probability of 2 events is NEVER __ than the probabilities of either event alone
Pr[Linda is a bank teller] = 0.8
Pr[Linda is a feminist] = 0.5
Pr[Linda is a bank teller and a feminist] = 0.8 x 0.5 = 0.4
•___ heuristic in action
larger
representativeness
Framing Effects
- Two alternative programs to combat a disease have been proposed: Treatment A and Treatment B. Which would you favor?”
- Options with the SAME __ are preferred __, depending on how they are __.
•If the frame describes the choice in terms of __ (400 will die), decision makers tend to be __ __.
– they prefer to gamble to avoid the loss (__ __)
•If the frame describes the choice in terms of __ (save 200), decision makers tend to be __ __.
– they prefer to __ to what they already have
•Example: C__ ch__
when decisions were framed as __, people were loss aversive and chose a car with more options than when they were framed as __.
outcome, differently, framed
losses
risk seeking
loss averse
gains
risk averse
hold
consumer choice
deletions, additions
•Induction is the capacity to extend knowledge to __ instances of a __.
•Move from s\_\_\_ o\_\_ to g\_\_ c\_\_ –Emerald #1 is green. –Emerald #2 is green. ... –Emerald #N is green. –No non-green emeralds have been observed so far. –All emeralds are green.
•Essentialism: Category-based inferences for __ (bird, fish, rabbit), for __ __ (gold, cotton), and for __ __ (boy, girl, smart).
novel, category
specific observations, general conclusions
animals, natural substances, and social categories
- In Deduction, one assumes that __ are true and then seeks to determine what __ follow from the premises
- Move from general premise to specific conclusions
ex: dog/mammal
ex2: tree/roots
premises, conclusions
general premise, specific conclusions
–If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.–This animal is a dog–It is a mammal
–All trees have roots.–This oak is a tree.–This oak has roots.
S__–All trees have roots.–This oak is a tree.–This oak has roots.
•First two statements are __ (pieces of information)
•Last statement is the __
C__ R__–If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.–This animal is a dog–It is a mammal
•If A is the __
•Then B is the __
•Syllogistic and conditional reasoning can be used __
syllogisms
premises
conclusion
conditional reasoning
antecedent
consequent
together
The Virtue of Valid Arguments
•An argument may be __ even though every proposition in it is __.
ex: aphrodite/invisible
•The virtue of valid arguments is not that they are guaranteed to be __, but that they are guaranteed to be __ ___.
valid, false
:All men are invisible.Aphrodite is a man.Aphrodite is invisible.
true, truth preserving
Deduction: Sound Arguments
•“If there is a chain of argument, every link in the chain must work (including the __)
– not just most of them.”
•A sound argument is an argument that:
–Is d___ v___ AND
–All its p___ are true.
–Then the c___ must be true also. It is no less certain than the premises themselves.
premises
deductively valid
premises
conclusion
Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent)
-If _ then _
_ is true so conclude that _ is true. (conclusion is __)
ex: dog/mammal
A, B
A, B, valid
If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. This animal is a dog. Conclusion: it is a mammal.
Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent)
-If _ then _
_ is false so conclude that _ is false. (conclusion is __)
ex: dog/mammal
A, B
B, A, valid
If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. It is not a mammal. Conclusion: This animal is not a dog.
Affirming the Consequent:
-If _ then _
_ is true, cannot conclude that _ is true. (conclusion is __)
ex: dog/mammal
A, B
B, A, invalid
If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. It is a mammal. Conclusion: this animal is a dog. (invalid)
Denying the Antecedent:
-If _ then _.
_ is false, cannot conclude that _ is false.(conclusion is _)
ex: dog/mammal
A, B
A, B, invalid
If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. This animal is not a dog. Conclusion: this animal is not a mammal. (invalid)
Content Effects in Deductive Reasoning
- Logical validity depends only on the __ (or __) of the argument.
- It does not depend on the specific __ of the statements.
- However, people are systematically (and often erroneously) affected by the __.
structure, form
content
content
Context Effects in Deductive Reasoning Four-Card Selection Task
•“If a card has a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other.”
–Card 1: H
–Card 2: E
–Card 3: 6
–Card 4: 7
•Which card(s) do you have to turn in order to determine whether or not the rule is true for this set of cards?
E and 7
Drinking / Checking ID Version
•“If a person is drinking alcohol, he or she must be at least 21 years old.” –Person 1:Drinking: ?Age: 16 –Person 2:Drinking: ?Age: 22 –Person 3:Drinking: Coke Age: ? –Person 4:Drinking: Beer Age: ?
•Who has to be checked?
Person 1 and person 4
Selection Task: Results
- People make a lot of mistakes on the abstract (four-card) version of the task:–Card 1: H–Card 2: E–Card 3: 6–Card 4: 7
- Almost everyone reasons correctly in the real-life versions!
- Content effect: __ problems are harder than __ problems in deductive reasoning
abstract, concrete
Belief Bias in Deductive Reasoning
- Belief bias: We are more likely to accept an __ argument when the __ agrees with our beliefs
- Similar to ___ bias
ex: Invalid, Believable (92%)
•No addictive things are inexpensive
•Some cigarettes are inexpensive.
•Therefore, some addictive things are not cigarettes.
invalid, conclusion
confirmation
Theories of Deductive Reasoning:
Formal Rules Theory
- Hypothesis: Each person has m__ l__, an internal set of __ logical rules and a set of __ for using them.
- Prediction: The rules should apply to every task with the same logical __.
- But there are c__ e__ on reasoning. (not a good theory)
mental logic
abstract
processes
structure
content effects
Theories of Deductive Reasoning:
Memory Cuing Theory
- Hypothesis: Each person has a large __ of specific __ stored in memory.
- This theory has the opposite problem to the __ __ __.
- The scenarios are too __ and cannot easily account for the human ability to reason about __ situations.
collection, scenarios
formal rules theory
specific, unfamiliar
Theories of Deductive Reasoning
Mental Models
•Deductive reasoning requires building a mental model
–Mental model: representation of a __; how things __ in the world
Reasoning is easier when it’s easier to build a mental model:
–C__ problems
–Only __ mental model is required
–When the __ is stated first (e.g. You may see the movie, if you finish your homework)
state, work
concrete
one
consequent
Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas
•We use pragmatic reasoning schemas instead of __ memory or __ __ of logic, for some __ situations
–Schemas for p__, o__.
Modus Ponens/modus tollens
If A, then B. A is true so B
•If you want to use the iPad, then you must first make your bed.
•If a worker is injured on the job, then employer must pay medical bills.
- Abstract Wason 4-card selection task is harder than ‘concrete’ selection task because abstract form does not fit any __ __ schema
- Training examples from f__, c__ schemas improved abstract selection task performance more than training in a__, f__ logic
episodic, formal rules, learned
permission, obligation
pragmatic reasoning
familiar, concrete
abstract, formal
Dual Process Theoriesof Reasoning
- System 1•F__ •A__•E__•U__•H__ processes
- System 2•S__•E__•L__•C__•A__ processes
- We use System _ most of the time
- System _ can override System _, provided the person has the k__ and the o__ to deploy it.
fast, automatic, emotional, unconscious, heuristic processes
slow, effortful, logical, conscious, analytical processes
system 1
2, 1
knowledge, opportunity
Are we Rational or Irrational? Irrational: D___
•Person’s inability to think rationally despite possessing adequate __. Why?
–Lack of c__ processing (c__ m__)
–Lack of u__ (knowledge of p__, l__ & scientific __)
–R__ error
–H__ and e__
•Heuristics and biases are cognitive __
Dysrationalia
intelligence
cognitive (cognitive miser)
understanding (probability, logic, scientific inference)
random
habits and emotions
illusions
Are we Rational or Irrational?
We are Irrational, but it’s ok…
•Human reasoning doesn’t have to be __, it just have to be “__ __”
•Heuristics and biases are __
–F__ and f__ heuristics: s__ cognitive mechanisms can make decisions as well as c__ statistical models
optimal, good enough
adaptive
fast, frugal
simple, complex
Bounded Rationality
- Decision making is constrained by limited __, cognitive __, and t__.
- Satisficing (s__ + s__): pick a strategy that meets our standards for an adequate (not __) s__.
information, ability, time
satisfy+suffice
optimal, solution
Decision Making and Happiness
maximizers: exhaustively seek the b__, c__ decisions with others, expend more t__ and e__, __ with outcomes.
satisficers: a__ good enough, don’t obsess over other o__, can move on after d__, __ with outcomes.
best, compare, time/energy, unhappier
accept, options, deciding, happier
The paradox of choice(or why choice makes people miserable)
- R__ and a__ r__–We are less satisfied with the result of our choice than we would be if we had fewer options
- O__ c__–“Commitment” reduces the satisfaction we get from our choice
- E__ of e__–We expect perfection, when we have more options
- S__-b__–You are responsible if you are dissatisfied, when there are many options
regret, anticipated regret
opportunity costs
escalation of expectations
self-blame
Definition of a Problem
•“A person is confronted with a problem when he __ something and does not know immediately what series of __ he can perform to get it”
–Present (or initial) state – not s__.
–G__ state – more satisfactory.
–Operators (or moves) – change one __ into a different __.
–Constraints – r__, r__, b__…
–Solution – a sequence of v__ moves from the i__ state to the g__.
wants, actions
satisfactory
goal
state, state
restrictions, rules, budgets
valid, initial, goal
The Tower of Hanoi
- __ state: All disks on peg 1
- __ state: All disks on peg 3
•C__:
–Move only one disk at a time
–May not place a larger disk on top of a smaller one
- S__: Board configurations
- M__ / O__: Transitions between states
- S__: A path to the goal state (#8)
initial
goal
constraints
states
moves/operators
solution
Well- vs. Ill-Defined Problems
•Well-defined problem: the __ state, g__ state, possible o__, and c__ are all known
.•Ill-defined problem: one or more components are not __ at the onset. Part of the problem is to figure out the __ elements.
initial, goal, operators, constraints
specified, missing
How Do People Solve Problems?Different Perspectives
1.“Business as usual”/Analytical view:
–Emphasizes the role of k__, a__, and h__.
–__ cognitive processing
2.Insight (Aha!) view/Special Process view:
–“Think outside the box!”
–Special process(es): I__, i__, …
•Endpoints on a c__, not sharp d__.
knowledge, algorithms, heuristics
ordinary
insight, incubation
continuum, divisions
How do people solve problems? Approaches to solving problems:
- Weak methods: g__, non-__ approaches
- Strong methods: t__-d__, d__-specific approaches (__); apply d__ to the problem
- Strong and weak problem solving methods are on a __ reflecting the __ possessed by the person working on the problem
general, non-specific
top-down, domain-specific (expertise), directly
continuum, knowledge
•For some problems, a __ sequence of moves is available that __ a solution
–Algorithms: a set of operations that always produces the __ solution
–Ex. Math operations, formulas (__ methods)
specified, guarantees
correct
strong
•Exhaustive search of the problem space (__ method)
–Construct a word out of YRT vs. GMAANRAS
–Combinatorial Explosion: Exhaustive search results in 40,320 possibilities!
–Tic-tac-toe: exhaustive search of the problem space is feasible
–Chess: problem space has 1040 positions and 10 to the 120games
•Search must be __ and __.
weak
guided, selective
__ Methods
•Heuristics: rules of thumb; do not __ a solution, but may __ a solution
–H__ c__ – compare current & goal states and pick an operator that makes progress toward the goal
–W__ b__ – start at the goal and work towards the initial state
–M__-e__ analysis – compare current state to the goal state. What means do I have to make these more alike?
weak
guarantee, facilitate
hill climbing
working backward
means-end analysis
Problem Solving Research Methods: Verbal Protocols
- Please think aloud!
- SEND+MOREMONEY
- “OK, let’s try D=1. Then Y=E+1…”
•Verbal protocols: t__ and a__ of people’s verbalizations as they solve a problem
B__ K__ Can Narrow the Search Dramatically
transcription, analysis
background knowledge
Strong Methods: ExpertisePattern Recognition
•For a chess master, playing chess is at a __-__ pattern recognition (memory) process.
–Many times, the masters simply looked at the board and saw or recognized the good moves.
–Masters focused on what turned out to be the best move.
–Less-skilled players spent time thinking about moves that the masters never considered.
•Experts can use __ methods, which are acquired through l__ (10 year rule!)
top-down
strong, learning
Expert v. Novice Differences in Problem Solving
•Novices focus on __ features
–Pulleys, mass
•Experts focus on underlying __
–F=MA
surface
principles
•Analogies are a commonly used strategy in problem solving
–Relationship between two __ situations, problems or concepts
•Base: the __ situation
•Target: the __ situation
•The __ is applied to the __
•Strong & weak methods on a __
similar
familiar
novel
base, target
continuum
“Stages” of Analogy-Making
- E__ (representation building) of the t__ problem
- R__ of an appropriate analog (or __) from LTM
- M__ the base to the target to find corresponding elements
- T__ of knowledge from the base to the target
encoding, target
retrieval, base
mapping
transfer
Analogical Transfer
•Target problem: Radiation
•Base problem: Military
•Three groups of subjects:
–Control: Solve problem (radiation)–Transfer/No Hint: Read/remember military problem, later solve radiation problem
–Transfer/Hint: Read/remember military, get hint, solve radiation
•HINT: In solving problem, you may find that one of the stories you read before will give you a hint for solving the problem
Analog Retrieval is Hard
•Transfer participants knew about the Military Problem; Control participants did not.
•Days later, all were given the Radiation Problem to solve. Three exp. groups:
–No memory: ~10% solved the Radiation Problem
–Remember military: ~30% solved it
–Remember military + Hint: ~75% solved it
•Conclusion: The main obstacle was to __ the __. __ was easier.
retrieve, source
mapping
Why is Retrieval hard?
•We think __, but transfer requires __ thinking
–It’s easier to retrieve a base problem when the __ __ are similar to the target problem
•But, surface similarity can be __
–Mapping is improved when the solution of the base problem in encoded in g__, s__ terms…
•But, it can be difficult to __ the base problem when it is encoded in general terms
concretely, abstract
surface features
misleading
general, schematic
retrieve
Business-as-Usual vs. Special Process Analytic vs. Insight
•Analytic problems: Finding the solution typically involves i__, s__-_-__ progress
–Examples: Tower of Hanoi, chess, algebra
–“Business as usual” information processing
•Insight problems: The solution often comes “in a flash of __”
–__! Experience
–Often preceded by an __, where there appear to be no options left to try.
incremental, step-by-step
insight
aha!
impasse
Insight: History
•Thorndike: Animals use t__-__-___ to escape puzzle boxes, not __.
•G__ psychology’s response to Thorndike
–Problems are like perceptual phenomenon that can be __ into solvable representations
–Thorndike’s cats had no chance to __ the problem
–Apes show “__” when they have opportunity to __ the problem
trial-and-error, insight
gestalt
restructured
restructure
insight, restructure
Examples: The Nine-Dot Problem
- Connect all nine dots by drawing four straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper.
- Hint: Think out of the box!
- __ makes finding the solution difficult
fixation
Examples: The Candle Problem
- Attach the candle to a wooden wall, so that you can read by its light, using only the materials shown in the picture.
- F___ f___ makes finding the solution difficult
functional fixedness
Problem Restructuring
- Gestalt psychologists: More than one __ is possible
- Requires a new ___ of the entire problem situation after an __
- Often sudden. ___!
interpretation
conceptualization, impasse
aha!
“Warmth” Ratings Evidence for “Special Process”?
analytic problems: __ progress
insight problems: sudden __
gradual
increase
Evidence for the Business-as-Usual View
- Insight requires some __ knowledge (e.g. Kohler’s apes)
- Ordinary cognitive processes (__) can lead to Insight; an impasse does not trigger a s__ i__ process
- The fact that a problem is solved in a sudden Aha! does not mean that no progress has been made __ the Aha!
prior- apes that had been in captivity whole life couldn’t use branch insight to solve problem
recognition, special insight
before
Hybrid Model
•Incorporates __ & __ __ views
analytical, special process
The Science of Creativity
•We will approach creativity as a __-__ process which can be __ studied
top-down
objectively
Problem Solving and Creative Thinking and Novelty
•To call something a problem, the situation must be __. Hence creative thinking…
–It’s not a problem if you can recall a __ to a previously solved problem.
•Creative thinking occurs when a person __ produces something that is __ to them.
–The critical element in calling some outcome creative is that it be __
novel
solution
intentionally, novel
new
Watson & Crick: Conclusions
- Even though the product revolutionized genetics, the cognitive process of discovery was relatively __.
- Analogical transfer: Watson & Crick used Linus Pauling’s helical model of alpha-keratin as the __ for their model of DNA.
- Incremental progress: Early models were incorrect, so Watson & Crick tested new __ and acquired new __.
straightforward
foundation
hypotheses, information
Guernica: Conclusions
•Even though the final product is exceptional, Guernica shows no evidence of extraordinary c__ p__.
– no leaps outside the box.
•Picasso was __ on his own earlier work and on that of his predecessors.
cognitive process
building
What can we conclude from two examples?
•In many cases, creativity involves “__ thought”
–__-__ knowledge
–I__ progress
–Hard work (__ practice & the 10-year rule)
ordinary
top-down
incremental
deliberate
The 10-Year Rule in Creativity
•__+ years of __ to a discipline are required for world-class achievement.
•Historical studies (Hayes, 1989; etc.): –76 composers – 500 masterworks –131 painters –Scientists (Raskin, 1936) –Mathematicians (Gustin, 1985) –Physicians (Patel & Groen, 1991)
10
commitment
Expertise and Talent
•Talent (or “gift”) for a domain
– innate capacity to function well within the domain.
- Deliberate __ differentiated between musicians’ skill levels, not __
- Criticism: research explains the __ to achieve world-class skill but not the __
- See __-seeking hypothesis
practice, talent
how, why
niche
Information Processing Approaches
•Creative thinking as ___-__ problem solving
–Creative thinking builds on the __.
–It is dependent on __.
–It advances in __ steps rather than through great __ outside the box.
heuristic-based
past
expertise
small, leaps
Heuristics in (Creative) Scientific Thinking
•__ studied heuristics in four molecular biology labs
•Heuristics (& __ processes) are important in creativity:
–Apply heuristics that generate ideas for __ experimentation.
–If the results are unexpected, (> half were unexpected!), apply other heuristics to repair or __ the hypothesis
•__ researchers were more likely to abandon their previous hypotheses in the face of negative findings than __ experienced researchers because the experienced researchers were used to negative results.
Dunbar
social
further
change
experienced, less
Flow and Creativity
•M__ Csikszentmihalyi, a leader in creativity research & positive psychology
•When do people feel happy?
–Watching TV?
–Altered states via pot or alcohol?
–Buying expensive toys, clothes?
•Creativity and the challenge of discovery provide __ motivating rewards for some people
Flow and Optimal Experience
•Flow: a state of heightened f__ and i__ in activities such as art, play, work
•Most likely to be experienced when a person is c__ and has the s__ to meet the challenge!
mihaly
intrinsically
focus, immersion
challenged, skills
