Test 3 Flashcards
What is learning?
Relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes due to experience & practice
Conditioning
Process of learning associations between stimuli and behavioral responses
Classical Conditioning?
Learning through involuntary paired associations; it occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (USC)
Naturally occurring stimulus
Leads to an involuntary response
Unconditioned: “Unlearned” or “naturally occurring”
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Involuntary response to naturally occurring stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Stimulus is able to produce learned reflex response
Paired with the original unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned = “learned”
***Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.
Sometimes called conditioned reflex
Acquisition
Neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired; neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response
Stimulus Generalization
Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS) elicit a conditioned response (CR)
stimulus discrimination
Only the conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits the conditioned response (CR)
Extinction
Gradual disappearance / weakening of a learned/conditioned response (CR); occurs when unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is withheld whenever the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented
spontaneous recover
Reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
Higher-order conditioning
A strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus.
A neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus.
Delayed conditioning
neutral stimulus presented before unconditioned stimulus and remains until unconditioned response begins
Simultaneous conditioning
Neutral stimulus presented at the same time as unconditioned stimulus
Trace conditioning
Neutral stimulus presented and then taken away or ends before unconditioned stimulus presented
Backward conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus presented before neutral stimulus
Biological preparedness
the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning
Conditioned taste aversion
development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction
Vicarious conditioning
Classical conditioning acquired by watching the reaction of another person
Conditioned emotional response (C E R)
emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli
Operant Conditioning (AKA Instrumental Conditioning):
we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence (resulting events) and thus repeat behavior that has produced good results and avoid behavior followed by bad results.
Reinforcement
any event or stimulus that, when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again
Primary reinforcer
any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch
Secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
Positive Reinforcement
adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur (e.g., praise)
Negative Reinforcement
removing, escaping from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
Partial reinforcement effect
a response that is reinforced after some—but not all—correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction
Continuous reinforcement
reinforcement of each and every correct response
Fixed Ratio (FR):
reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio number or amount is fixed
Variable Ratio (VR):
reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies
Fixed Interval (FI):
reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed
Variable Interval
reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies
Punishment
any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again
Punishment by application
the punishment of a response by the addition or experience of an unpleasant stimulus
Punishment by removal
the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus
Shaping
reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a desired complex behavior
Successive approximation
small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior
Premack’s Principle
states that more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors
Behavior modification
use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior
Applied behavior analysis
modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response
cognition
the mental events that take place inside a person’s mind during behavior,
Cognitive-Social Theory
emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior
Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight learning
the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly
Edward Tolman
best-known experiments in learning involved teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at a time (Tolman & Honzik, 1930b)
Observational learning
learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior
Learning/performance distinction
learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior
Albert Bandura
famous Bobo doll experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an adult model performing aggressive behavior
Memory
The retention of information over timewe actively reconstruct memories, not passively reproduce them.
Three systems of memory
Sensory, Short term, Long term
vary in terms of span and duration
Information moves from sensory to short term to long term, then back to short term when retrieved
Sensory Memory
Brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory
Iconic (visual) lasts only 1 second; echoic (auditory) can last 5-10 seconds.
Short term memory
Brief in duration; 5-20 seconds
The span of STM in adults is 7 + 2 pieces of information: the Magic Number 7.
Decay
information fades over time
Interference
loss of information due to competition with new, incoming information
Retroactive interference
happens when learning new information hampers memory for earlier learning.
Proactive interference
happens when earlier learning gets in the way of new learning.
chunking
organizing information into meaningful groups
Rehearsal
repeating information in STM, extends its duration.
Maintenance rehearsal
is simply repeating STM information in its original form.
Elaborative rehearsal
is forming meaningful links among STM material.
Long Term Memory
Relatively enduring store of information
Includes facts, experiences, and skills we’ve developed over a lifetime
Encoding
is getting information into memory.
Storage
is keeping information in memory.
Retrieval
is the reactivation or reconstruction of information from memory
Primacy effect
tendency to remember stimuli presented earliest (now in LTM)
Recency effect
tendency to remember stimuli that presented most recently (still in STM)
Mnemonics
are learning aids that enhance recall
Acronym Mnemonics
ROY G. BIV for the spectrum colorsHOMES for the Great Lakes
Rhyme or Poem Mnemonics
Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November;
Schemas
are organized knowledge structures or mental models that we’ve stored in memory.
Recall
generating previously remembered information
Recognition
selecting previously remembered information from an array of options
Relearning
“savings”; how much more quickly we reacquire something learned before
Context-dependent memory
Superior retrieval when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context
State-dependent memory
Superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding
Mood congruence
Ex: When you are mad at your partner, you recall the times s/he made you mad!
Long-term potentiation
the gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation.
Amnesia
memory loss from brain injury or trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memory preceding the injury
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new long term memories
Amygdala
helps recall emotions associated with fearful events.
Hippocampus
helps us recall the events themselves. memory recognition, long term memory
Thalamus
Formation of new memories an spatial and working memory
cortex
encoding of explicit memories, skill learning, printing working memory
Dementia
(not a part of normal aging)
mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect
altered personality and behavior
Individuals with dementia can lose episodic and semantic memories.
can result from cerebral arteriosclerosis, chronic alcoholism, strokes
Alzheimer’s disease
is the most frequent cause of dementia (50% of cases).
Show memory and language losses, consistent with cortical loss
Flashbulb memories
are very vivid and able to be recalled in detail much later.
Source monitoring confusion
is a lack of clarity about the origins of a memory.
Social psychology
Scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by others
Social cognition
The ways people think about other people
Social interaction
The ways behavior can be affected by other people
Negative or Positive
Conformity
Changing one’s own behavior to more closely match the actions of others (indirect compliance due to group pressure)
Invulnerability
Members feel they cannot fail- the group can do no wrong
Rationalization
Member explain away warning signs and help each other rationalize their decision
Lack of introspection
Member do not examine the ethical implication of their decision because they believe that they cannot make immoral choices
Stereotyping
Member stereotype their enemies as weak, stupid , or unreasonable.
Pressure
Member pressure each other not question the prevailing opinion and prevent hose who disagree from speaking up
Lack of disagreement
Member do not express opinions that differ from the group consensus in a “don’t rock the boat” mentality
Self-deception
Members share in the illusion that they all agree with the decision
Insularity
Self-appointed “mind guards” prevent the group from sharing disruptive but potentially useful information from people who are outside the group
Compliance
change in behavior in response to a request
Consumer psychology
Figuring out how to get people to buy items
Foot-in-the-door technique
Asking for a small commitment
After gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment
Door-in-the-face technique
Asking for a large commitment and being refused
Next ask for a smaller commitment
Lowball technique
(often seen in car sales)
Getting a commitment from a person
Then raise the cost of that commitment
That’s-not-all technique
Assumes if someone does something for a person, that person should do something for the other in return.
Obedience
Changing one’s behaviorin response to a command of an authority figure
Milgram’s Experiment on Obedience
Each participant (“teacher”) was instructed to give electric shocks to another person (the “learner,” who only pretended to be shocked). Every single participant complied with at least some orders to shock another person.
Social role
Pattern of behavior expected of a person in a particular social position
Zimbardo Prison Experiment (Stanford University 1971)
The participants adapted to their roles far beyond expectation
Guards became very authoritarian to the point of subjecting the prisoners to psychological torture
Prisoners usually passively accepted the guards commands and guards harassed those who attempted to resist
After the prisoners staged a revolt, the guards became more aggressive
Pro-social behavior
Socially desirable behavior that benefits others
Altruism
Helping someone with no expectation of reward
May involve the risk of harm to oneself
