Test 3 Flashcards
Why did the Age of Reason bring a flood of biological information?
- The Renaissance era brought many new experiments and observations.
- With the use of the microscope (Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Swammerdam), even more information was brought to biology.
- The problem of organization became acute.
Plato
-Classification
- Began binomial classification.
- Two kinds of existence: Intelligible Supernatural and Sensible Natural.
- Intelligible: Forms or Mathematical Objects
- Sensible: Things or Images
- Two-ness
Aristotle
-Classification
-Continued binomial classification.
Animals: Viviparous vs. Oviparous
Oviparous: Perfect eggs vs. Imperfect eggs
Eggs: Laying vs. Giving birth
Matthias de l’Obel
-Classification
-Classified plants by the leaves.
Grasses and Orchids: leaves with parallel veins.
Hemlock and Fern: Similar shape and both compound.
-Artificial system: groups by appearance.
(Modern view is Natural system: group by genetic relatedness. )
EC- Cardinal flower named after Matthias de l’Obel
Lobelia Cardinalis
Andrea Cesalpino
-Classification
- Classification of plants by of flowers and fruits.
- More of a Natural grouping system by genetic relatedness. (Organs of reproduction.)
EC-Plant named after Andrea Cesalpino
Caesalpinia Pucherrima- Bird of paradise
Kaspar Bauhin
- Classification
- Naming
- Made descriptions of 6,000 plant species.
- Provided a word for each Genus and a description afterward (where our Species name would normally be).
EC-St. Vitus’s Dance/St. Anthony’s Fire
- Classified in Kaspar Bauhin’s Theatri Botanici.
- Grass known as rye with parasitic fungi called ergots. Produces hallucinating chemicals causing madness in the Middle Ages. From eating infected bread.
Joachim Jung (7)
- Classification
- Naming
- Simple and Compound leaves
- Opposite and Alternate locations
- Petiole, Stamen, Style
- Sunflower: composite of many flowers (today known as Compositae)
- used flowers rather than leaves
- did not know flowers were sexual organs
- Name for a plant: first word noun (Genus), second word adjective
John Ray
-Classification
- Binary classification system for plants:
- Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons
- Animal Classification:
- Hooves vs Nails
- 5-toed vs 2-toed
- Toes jointed vs Separate
- Nails narrow vs Broad
- Two-ness
- More natural than artificial
- Empiricist
- Described 18,600 plants in Historia Generalis Plantarum
Joseph Tournefort
- Classification
- Naming
- Errors
- Classified flowers
- Gives a word for the Species and a description for the Genus.
- Errors: Denied that plants have sexual reproduction. Classified plants with small flowers into plants with no flowers at all.
EC-Book written by Tournefort about Plants
Institutiones Rei Herbariae: Flower on cover is Paradisea Lilastrum (St. Bruno’s Lily).
Compare the classification systems of Bauhin and Tournefort
Bauhin: Word for each Genus with a description afterward.
Tournefort: Word for the Species and description for Genus.
Carolus Linnaeus
- Classification
- Naming
- Adopted the same Linnaeus after the Linden tree.
- Recognized that flowers are sexual organs.
- Used natural classification: genetic relatedness.
- Gave each type of plant and animal a Species name consisting of the Genus and the epithet. (like Homo Sapiens)
- Botanical: Emphasized flower anatomy.
- Zoological: Emphasized the heart and the blood: Humans: 1 or 2 ventricles, 2 auricles, warm red blood. Worms: 1 ventricle, no auricle, cold colorless blood.
EC-Carolus Linnaeus
- Tilia Americana L. Only author of species privileged to have a single letter abbreviation.
- Went on a collecting trip to Lapland & discovered hundreds of new plant species.
- Wrote Systema Naturae. Foundation of modern taxonomic biology.
- Linnaean Society of London: Naturae Discere Mores (to learn the ways of nature) -July 1, 1858; Darwin and Wallace on the theory of evolution by natural selection
Homo sapiens
- Genus is Homo
- Species is two words: Homo sapiens
- Family: Hominidae
- Order: Primates
- Class: Mammalia
Conte de Buffon (3)
- Principle of Plenitude: all living things that could possibly exist do exist somewhere. The universe contains all possible forms of existence. There may be missing links (undiscovered species) but no evolution occurs between forms.
- Relaxation of the Principle of Plenitude: New forms do descend from old forms by degeneration. Animals in the Old World are closer to perfection than animals in the New World.
- Spontaneous Generation: Two occasions brought basic forms of life. Life arising in an earlier age was annihilated by global cooling. Life arising in a later age is what we have today.
Summarize an example of Buddhist evolutionary ideas
- There are many worlds, not just our own. Life exists on other worlds, too.
- Humans on this world have evolved. People were once originally immaterial, aerial and self-luminous.
- Humans changed as the world changed. They began eating soil, then plants and then became material and sexes and races developed.
- Similar to Buffon’s idea of degenerative evolution.
Charles Bonnet
- Palingenesis: progressive evolution.
- Living species contain a germ or seed of life unsuitable for today’s world.
- When the world changes these seeds will develop into new species.
- Not one species arising from another. A reincarnation of a previously existing form into an improved form.
- Pre-ordained process planned by God.
What is a significant difference between the ideas of Buffon and Bonnet?
- Buffon: Degenerative evolution
- Bonnet: Progressive evolution
Erasmus Darwin (7)
- Evolution/Evidence of change in nature:
- Metamorphic change of a caterpillar to a butterfly.
- Artificial change in the development of breeds of dogs and horses.
- Climatically-induced change when a mammal grows thicker fur in the cold.
- Changes from crosses when one species mates with another.
- similarity of structures (homology)
- The Species we observe may well have evolved by descent with modification and by natural selection.
- Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Environmentally-induced changes such as weight gain or the lengthening of a stretching giraffe’s neck can be transmitted to the next generation.
William Paley
-Intelligent Design: If you saw a stone on the ground you might not be led to believe it had a creator. But what about a watch? Surely a watch requires a designer. It requires an intelligence to create such a thing. If this is true about a watch, why not about other things we see that are more complicated? God must exist.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (3)
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Earliest Evolutionary Trees Known
-Started at the top with the beginning of life: Cnidarians, echinoderms, protozoa thought to arise by spontaneous generation and not give rise to other creatures.
-From worms arise insects, spiders, crabs, nematodes, clams, octopi.
-From clams, fish and octopi arise reptiles and amphibians.
-From reptiles arose birds and duck-billed platypus
-Whales
-Hoofed animals
-Humans
(-Vs. Modern style: Echinoderms should be closer to humans)
Spontaneous Generation
-Cnidarians could arise from sea mud.
-Creatures that spontaneously generate aren’t thought to evolve except for worms which give rise to insects, etc.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (6)
- Evolutionary Origin of the Skull: The skull is composed of modified vertebrae (bones that make up the spine).
- Claimed to have found the missing link between adult mammals and humans: the inter maxillary bone.
- Parts of a flower were modified leaves.
- The Law of Balance: No structure can be lost by the body without another part being added somewhere else, and vice versa.
- Invented the word ‘Morphology’, meaning structure.
- Physics: ridiculed Newton’s discovery that white light is the combination of all colors. Believed white light was a basic, fundamental condition. A prism does not refract white light into component colors.
EC-Goethe
-Wrote a play called Faust. A professor of science sells his soul to the devil to gain more knowledge.
Georges Cuvier (4)
- The Principle of Correlation of Parts: The parts of the body exist as a set such that if one structure is found another is also expected. Ex- if a hand bone is found, we expect an arm bone.
- The Principle of the Subordination of Characters: When classifying organisms, those features most important to the living thing’s way of life should receive the greatest emphasis.
- Fixity of Species: Species are fixed in their forms and they do not change. Rejection of evolution and Lamarck.
- Doctrine of Catastrophes: Explained different forms of species explained by die-offs caused by catastrophes that were followed by repopulation. All forms that would ever be were formed at Creation. Cuvier did not allow extinction.
Georges Cuvier’s Classification of the Animal Kingdom
- Vertebra: animals with backbones
- Mammalia
- Aves
- Reptiles
- Pisces (fish)
- Mollusca: snails, slugs, squids, octopi
- Gasteropoda
- Cephalopoda
- Cirripedia
- Articulata: insects, crustaceans, spiders
- Crustacea
- Arachnida
- Annelides
- Insecta
- Radiata: animals with radial symmetry, starfish, jellyfish
- Other criteria for classification:
- Heart and circulatory system
- Brain and nervous system
Geoffroy St. Hilaire
- Insects are more primitive than we are
- Underlying Unity of Plan: insects have a dorsal heart and a ventral nerve cord. Humans have a dorsal nerve cord and a ventral heart. The Unity of Plan is maintained if the insect turns upside down and the dog, for example, evolves from such an inverted creature.
- Certain genes present in vertebrates and in insects trigger development at opposite sides of the body.
- Organ systems important for the Unity of Plan Theory: Circulatory system and Nervous system. Heart and brain. Aaorta and spinal cord.
Lorenz Oken (6)
- Originator of the scientific meeting.
- Classification of Animals by Senses:
- Dermatozoa (our invertebrates): Touch
- Glossozoa (our fish): Taste
- Rhinozoa (our reptiles): Smell
- Otozoa (our birds): Hearing
- Ophthalmozoa (our mammals): Sight
- Vertebral Origin of the Skull: the skull is segmented as is the vertebral column.
- Life arose from primal sea slime.
- Anticipation of the Cell Theory before Schleiden and Schwann
- Zero=0: the greatest of all mathematical ideas
- God and the world = 0 + -
- God = 0
- Space is 0 = + 0 -
Johann Friedrich Meckel (2)
- Meckel’s Biogenetic Law: the embryos of higher animals pass through the forms of lower animals.
- Teratology: studied abnormalities of development. Meckel’s diverticulum, a short blind extension of the small intestine, named after him.
Karl Ernst von Baer
-von Baer’s Biogenetic Law: Embryos of higher animals pass through a stage in which they resemble embryos of lower animals.
Ernst Haeckel (3)
- Haeckel’s Biogenetic Law: (Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny) In the sequential development of an individual we see a record of the changes, not just of its own body, but a representation of the adult bodies of the ancestors that gave rise to that individual.
- The human passes through a fish-like stage, not just through a stage in which its embryo resembles the embryo of a fish.
- The simpler, more primitive, general features of anatomy develop first, with the more complicated, most advanced, specific features added toward the end of development.
Which of the three biogenetic laws is most consistent with current beliefs?
Karl Ernst von Baer: Embryos of higher animals pass through a stage in which they resemble embryos of lower animals.
Richard Owen (4)
- Analogy and Homology: Analogous structures are those with the same function. Homologous structures are those that are of the same structural type.
- The wing of an insect and the wing of a bird are analogous. The arm of a man and the arm of a gorilla are homologous.
- Evolution for some but not for others. Darwin’s theory was possibly correct for nonhumans. Humans were created by God due to the complexity of the brain.
- Coined the word “dinosaur”.
- Founded the Natural History Museum of London
What is the modern view of Richard Owen’s take on analogy and homology?
- Analogous structures are those with the same function but not traceable to a common ancestor.
- The wing of an insect and the wing of a bird, but not the wing of a robin and the wing of a Canadian goose.
- Homologous structures are those that are traceable to a common ancestor in which the structure arose but which might or might not have the same function in the two animals in question.
- arm bones of bat and a bird
What Darwin Didn’t Know (4)
- Mendel’s Laws: Law of Segregation & of Independent Assortment
- Chromosomes
- Mutations
- Didn’t know how variations arose in nature or how they were transmitted to the next generation.
George Mendel
- Mendel’s Laws:
- Law of Segregation: The 2 alleles of a given gene separate during meiosis, one becoming part of one gamete and the other becoming part of a different gamete.
- Law of Independent Assortment: The segregation that occurs for each gene occurs independently of the segregation of all the other genes. The allele movement in one gene won’t affect the alleles in another.
- Ex: pea plant cross. Yy x Yy
- Genotype: the genetic constitution of the individual
- Phenotype: the outward manifestation of the genotype
EC-Mendel
- Published ideas on pea plants and inheritance in Versuche uber Pflanzen-Hybriden: Attempts over plant hybridization.
- Augustinian monk of St. Thomas’ Monastery.
- His work went largely unnoticed until 1990 when three biologists discovered it (Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, Erich Tschermak.
