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Cell Biology Test 3 > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are heterotrophs?

A

Organisms that obtain their organic material from other organisms
- Consumers of the biosphere

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2
Q

What are autotrophs?

A

Organisms that sustain themselves WITHOUT eating anything derived from other organisms
- Considered the producers of the biosphere

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3
Q

What are almost all plants?

A

Photoautotrophs; using the energy of sunlight to make organic molecules from H2O and CO2

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4
Q

Where is the location of photosythesis?

A

Takes place in green organelles called Chloroplasts

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5
Q

What cells are chloroplasts found in?

A

Epidermal Cells

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6
Q

What are chloroplasts structurally similar to and likely evolved from?

A

Photosynthetic Bacteria
ex.) Mitochondria

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7
Q

What is in the structure of the chloroplasts?

A
  1. Thylakoid (Grana; many thylakoid stacked)
  2. Stroma
  3. Double Membrane
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8
Q

How many peaks does chlorophyll A and B each have?

A

2

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9
Q

What are the primary pigments for plants?

A

Chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B

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10
Q

What wavelength is not absorbed?

A

Green spectrum; not absorbed, instead it reflects the green light which makes the leaves appear green

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11
Q

What are accessory pigments? Functions?

A

Carotenoid
- Broaden the spectrum of colors that drive photosynthesis
- Absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll

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12
Q

What kind of reaction is photosynthesis?

A

Redox Reaction; reduction-oxidation reaction

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13
Q

What is the reaction for photosynthesis?

A

Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O—–> C6H12O6 + 6H2O

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14
Q

What kind of bond does the redox reaction have?

A

Covalent Bonds

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15
Q

What are the reactants for light dependent reaction?

A

H2O
ADP, inorganic phosphate
Light Energy

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16
Q

What are the products of light dependent reactions?

A

ATP and NADPH

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17
Q

Where does light dependent reactions occur?

A

Within the Thylakoid, light energy hitting the chlorophyll

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18
Q

Where does Calvin Cycle/ Light Independent Reactions occur?

A

In the STROMA

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19
Q

What kind of process is the Calvin Cycle?

A

Cyclic Process

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20
Q

What are the reactants in the Calvin Cycle?

A

ATP and NADPH

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21
Q

What are the products in the Calvin Cycle?

A

3-carbon sugar (G3P)

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22
Q

How many CO2 make 6 molecules of G3P?

A

3

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23
Q

How many ATP and NADPH made 1 molecule of G3P?

A

9 and 6

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24
Q

What does cell division produce?

A

Two genetically identical daughter cells

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25
Q

Genome

A

Cell’s DNA

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26
Q

Chromatin

A

Genome of eukaryotic cells in the nucleus
- Loosely packages with proteins called HISTONES

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27
Q

Somatic Cells

A

All body cells except reproductive cells

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28
Q

Chromosomes

A

“Packaged DNA”
Diploid-46
Haploid-23

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29
Q

How many phases does the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and what are they?

A

Interphase and Mitosis

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30
Q

What phases are in the interphase?

A

G1 (growth phase 1), S phase, G2 (growth phase 2)

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31
Q

Where are the 3 checkpoints for the cell cycle?

A

G1, G2, M

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32
Q

What happens if the checkpoint process is overridden?

A

Uncontrollable cell growth happens which can cause CANCER

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33
Q

What happens at the G1 checkpoint?

A

The integrity of the DNA is assessed

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34
Q

What happens at checkpoint 2 at G2?

A

Checks DNA for any damage that might have occurred during replication
- Ensures all protein needed are cell division are present

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35
Q

What happens at the M checkpoint?

A

Occurs after G2, between metaphase and anaphase
- Determines that all sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules before the cell enters the anaphase

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36
Q

What happens when the damaged cells past all the checkpoints?

A

They are replicated

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37
Q

What is mitosis used for and what type of reproduction is it?

A

Growth and cell repair; asexual reproduction

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38
Q

What does spindle fibers do?

A

Mechanical ways to separate the chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis
- Composed of microtubules
- Animal cells have spindle fibers come from the centromere

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39
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

Spindle fibers are attached to these proteins at the centromeres of the chromosomes.

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40
Q

What are the phases of mitosis?

A

Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis

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41
Q

Is meiosis a cycle or not? Is it asexual or sexual reproduction?

A

NOT a cycle, and sexual reproduction

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42
Q

What are the 2 parts of the sexual life cycle?

A

Meiosis, fertilization

43
Q

What is meiosis?

A

Process by which reproductive cells reduce the number of chromosomes to haploids; makes haploid gametes (reduction division)

44
Q

When does cross over occur?

A

Meiosis 1: Prophase 1

45
Q

What is crossing over?

A

Is an exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes; mixes up genes within chromosomes

46
Q

What are crossover points called?

A

Chiasma

47
Q

Where does random/independent alignment occur?

A

Metaphase 1

48
Q

Where is a source of genetic variation?

A

Metaphase 1

49
Q

What is independent alignment and how does it affect genetic variation?

A

Each chromosomes moves independently of all the others; generates further genetic variation

50
Q

How is genetic variation produced?

A

In sexual life cycle

51
Q

What are the 3 ways genetic variation is produced?

A
  1. 1/2 the chromosome number by meiosis and fertilization
  2. Crossing over in prophase 1
  3. Independent assortment of chromosomes in Metaphase 1
52
Q

What is spermatogenesis?

A

Process in which sperm are made from each haploid of meiosis
- Start with 2n cells and produces 4 (1n) genetically different sperm cells

53
Q

What is oogenesis?

A

Start with 2N cell; produce 4 genetically different 1N cells; only 1 of the cells is viable; others are NONFUNCTIONAL
- Contains the cytoplasm

54
Q

What are the advantages of sexual reproduction?

A
  1. More adaptability
  2. More variation
  3. Greater chance of mutation
  4. Greater chance of survivability when faced with environmental change
55
Q

What is the structure of the DNA and RNA?

A

5 carbon monosaccharide (deoxyribose and ribose)
Phosphate Group (-OPO 3-)
Nitrogenous Base

56
Q

What is the monomer called for DNA?

A

Nucleotides

57
Q

What is the polymers for DNA?

A

Polynucleotides; nucleic acids

58
Q

What are the major nucleic acids?

A

DNA and RNA

59
Q

DNA

A

Stores all genetic information in all cells
- 1/2 from each parent

60
Q

RNA

A

Builds proteins to translate DNA

61
Q

What are the 3 different types of RNA?

A

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

62
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases for DNA?

A

AGCT

63
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases for RNA?

A

AGCU

64
Q

What are pyrimidines?

A

Bases with 1 RING
- Thymine (T)
- Cytosine (C)
- Uracil (U)

65
Q

What are purines?

A

Bases with 2 RINGS
- Adenine (A)
- Guanine (G)

66
Q

What is the difference between the Ribose and Deoxyribose sugars?

A

Ribose has an extra OH at the bottom of the sugar
Deoxyribose does not have an extra OH

67
Q

What is double helix?

A

2 strands of the nucleic acids wrapped around each other to form a DNA

68
Q

How do nucleotides (monomer) form nucleic acids (polymer)?

A

By dehydration reaction; removing water to form a COVALENT bond between phosphate (nucleotide 1) and sugar (nucleotide 2)

69
Q

What is the backbone of RNA?

A

Made of alternating sugar and phosphate which are held together with covalent bonds

70
Q

What is the antiparallel strands?

A

DNA run in opposite directions with their strands
5’–> 3’
3’–> 5’

71
Q

What does the 5’ end have?

A

Phosphate

72
Q

What does the 3’ end have?

A

Hydroxyl (-OH)

73
Q

What are the complementary base pairs of DNA? How many hydrogen bonds?

A

A–2–T
T–2–A
G–3–C
C–3–G

74
Q

What are the complementary base pairs of RNA? How many hydrogen bonds?

A

A–2–U
U–2–A
G–3–C
C–3–G

75
Q

Chromosomes

A

Packaged DNA, linear pieces of DNA bound to proteins called HISTONES

76
Q

Histones

A

A protein chromosomes are bound to

77
Q

Gene

A

Segment of DNA that codes for protein

78
Q

Genome

A

Holds all the chromosomes

79
Q

What are the (3) steps of DNA Replication?

A

Initiation, Elongation, Termination

I Eat Termites

80
Q

What is DNA Replication?

A

DNA is doubled by exactly copying the bases to make TWO DNA strands

81
Q

When is DNA Replications occur in?

A

Occurs in the process of making a new cell during Mitosis

82
Q

Initiation

A

Proteins bind to the origin of replication, the enzyme (helicase) unwinds the DNA helix
- 2 replication forks are formed at origin of replication, these forks are extended in both directions as the process continues
Creates replication bubbles

83
Q

Elongation

A

Enzyme called DNA Polymerase ADDS DNA nucleotides to the 5’ end of the new polynucleotide strand
- Enzyme primase initiates polynucleotide synthesis by creating a short RNA polynucleotide stand complementary to template SNA strand called Primer
- Eventually RNA nucleotide in primer are removed and replaced with DNA nucleotide
Leading and lagging strands

84
Q

Termination

A

DNA polymerase stops when reaches a section of the DNA template that has already been replicated
- RNA primers replaced with DNA lagging strand fragments need to be connected and nicks in the sugar-phosphate backbone need to be connected by the enzyme LIGASE which joins the sugar-phosphate backbone at each nick site

85
Q

Which of the following characteristics of DNA allows it to carry a vast amount of hereditary information?

A

Sequences of bases

86
Q

Leading Strand

A

Synthesized continuously toward the replication fork as helicase unwinds the template double-stranded DNA.L

87
Q

Lagging Strand

A

Synthesized in the direction away (discontinuously) from the replication fork and away from the DNA helicase unwinds (in fragments)

88
Q

What direction can be synthesized in pieces?

A

5’–>3’ direction

89
Q

How does eukaryotes contrast from prokaryotes?

A
  • DNA in nucleus
  • Linear chromosomes
  • Many chromosomes
  • Made of DNA coiled around Histones (=chromatin)
  • Divides by mitosis
90
Q

How does prokaryotes contrast from eukaryotes?

A
  • DNA in cytoplasm
  • Circular chromosomes
  • Single chromosomes
  • Made of ONLY DNA
  • Divides via binary fission
91
Q

What is the DNA Repair Mechanisms?

A

Collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA; constantly active

92
Q

What happens if the normal repair or cellular apoptosis does not occur?

A

Irreparable DNA damage may occur

93
Q

What factors depend on the rate of DNA repair?

A
  • Age of cell
  • Cell type
  • Extracellular environment
94
Q

What are the three possible states that happens to the cell that has irreparable DNA damage?

A
  1. State of dormancy called Senescence
  2. Cell suicide, programmed cell death (apoptosis)
  3. Unregulated cell division/growth ex.) Cancer
95
Q

Mutations

A

Changes on the DNA usually involving only 1 to 10 bases
- Usually occurs when there is an error in cell division following meiosis or mitosis

96
Q

What are the different types of mutations?

A

Missense, nonsense, insertion, deletion, duplication, frameshift, repeat

97
Q

Missense Mutation

A

Change in one DNA base pair that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein made by a gene

98
Q

Nonsense Mutation

A

Change in one DNA base pair
- The altered DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building a protein; results in a shortened protein

99
Q

Insertion

A

Changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by adding a piece of DNA

100
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

Occurs when the addition or loss of DNA bases changes a gene’s reading frame; shifts the grouping of these bases and changes the code for amino acids

101
Q

Deletion

A

Changes the number of DNA bases by removing a piece of DNA
- Small deletions may remove one or a few base pairs within a gene, while larger deletions can remove and entire gene or several neighboring genes

101
Q

Duplication

A

Consists of a piece of DNA that is abnormally copied one or more times

102
Q

Repeat Expansion

A

Short DNA sequences that are repeated a number of times in a row

103
Q

What are considered frameshift mutations?

A

Insertion, deletions, and duplications

Cell Biology Test 3 (3 decks)

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