TEST 3

Question 1

What is the definition of play?

What three things are mandatory for an activity to be considered play?

Answer 1

activities that are pursued for their own sake, with no motivation other than the enjoyment they bring

enjoyable, active, voluntary

Question 2

If a child is awarded for doing something, can it be considered play?

Answer 2

No

Question 3

If a child is ambivalent about participating in an activity, is it play?

Answer 3

No

Question 4

What are the two types of play?

Answer 4

non-social

social

Question 5

What did Mildred Parten study? How did she study this?

Answer 5

Does children’s play follow a developmental sequence? Does it change with age?

observed children for 7 months

Question 6

What are the 6 stages of play? Which are non-social and which are social?

Ages?

These stages increase in ____________ and _____________.

Answer 6

Non-social types of play:
1. Unoccupied play
2. Onlooker play
3. Solitary play

Social types of play:
4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Cooperative play

increase in complexity and interaction

1-3 - least complex = up to age 2
4-6 - most complex = 4 years old and older

Question 7

What defines the non-social types of play? What are they?

Answer 7

Play that does not involve the active participation of peers

1. Unoccupied play
2. Onlooker play
3. Solitary play

Question 8

Explain each of the three non-social types of play.

Answer 8

Unoccupied play: child watches the environment, but only briefly ( doesn’t have to be other people - they are only going to attend to things briefly - will not hold their attention for very long)

Onlooker play: child watches other children’s play, may ask questions about the play, will not try to join (even though they are asking questions (curious), they are not trying to participate)

Solitary play: child is engaged in own activities, doesn’t attend to the behaviors of others (all children at some point engage in solitary play but some more than others)

Question 9

What defines the social types of play? What are they?

Answer 9

Play that involves social interactions

4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Cooperative play

Question 10

Explain each of the three types of social play.

Answer 10

Parallel play: plays beside (but not with) others, typically engaged in similar activities (independent) - not working together/talking together/collaborative

Associative play: plays with others in a common activity, may share or comment, but don’t coordinate or have the same goal - may be paying attention to other people/may be interacting and talking to each other but do not have the same goal - e.g., not building a tower together

Cooperative play: plays with peers in an organized activity with a goal - organized, shared goal (e.g., playing a game together, enacting a play, building a tower together)

Question 11

The majority of children engaging in solitary and parallel play are in what age range?

In this age range, are they more frequently engaging in solitary or parallel play?

Answer 11

2-2.5 years old

parallel

Question 12

The majority of children engaging in associative and cooperative play are in what age range?

In this age range, are they more frequently engaging in associative or cooperative play?

Answer 12

4-4.5 years old

associative

Question 13

What are the two types of fantastical play? What two forms can fantastical play take?

Answer 13

Pretend play
Sociodramatic play

solitary or cooperative

Question 14

What age range engages in pretend play?

Answer 14

12-18 months

Question 15

What is pretend play? What do children create? What do children often engage in when practicing pretend play?

Answer 15

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations
- act as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

object substitution - a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself

Question 16

Why is object substitution different from dual representation?

Answer 16

different from dual rep because it does not have to have the features of the real thing it represents whereas in dual rep it does

Question 17

What does object substitution enable children to do?

Answer 17

enables children to pursue play activities even when they don’t have the exact objects for those activities

Question 18

The earliest interactions of pretend play are between parents and infants - how do parents convey to infants that the activities are pretend?

Answer 18

signals/cues = strong eye contact, smiling
e.g., slow (jerky) movements, smiling, pretend actions (e.g., exaggerated biting that is not real)

Question 19

What age range engages in sociodramatic play?

Answer 19

~2 years and older

Question 20

What is sociodramatic play?

Answer 20

activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children and adults

does not have to be with a caregiver

Question 21

Sociodramatic play is based on a child’s ________________ and reflects __________________ of situations and helps them to ________________ this.

What are they practicing?
What are they learning?

Answer 21

experiences

understanding

increase this understanding

practicing schemas
learning roles/order of events/social expectations

Question 22

What are the benefits of fantastical play?

What else could these benefits be attributed to though?

Answer 22

social and intellectual development:
-expand children’s understanding of the social world (e.g., doctor)
-understand people’s thoughts and emotions (theory of mind)

parental influence (their scaffolding gives cues and models their values)

Question 23

What cultural differences are there in fantastical play? What are the children learning to do using these themes of play? What does this relate to?

Answer 23

American children tend to play superheroes and act out themes of danger and fantasy 🡪 learning to assert their individual identities

Korean children tend to focus on family roles and everyday activities 🡪 learn how to control their egos and emotions to achieve group harmony

Cultural differences in values (individualism vs. collectivism - parents’ values)

Question 24

At what age do children begin to play structured games? How are these defined? What is the difference between these and pretend play?

Answer 24

~ 5 years (elementary school) and older: activities with conventional rules

e.g., sports, board games

rules which are stricter than pretend play

Question 25

What did Piaget believe children learn from playing games?

Answer 25

Piaget believed that by playing games, children learned that rules are the products of social agreements & can be changed with consensus, develop beliefs about fairness

Question 26

What is the definition of an imaginary companion?

Answer 26

“an invisible character, named and referred to in conversation with other persons or played with directly for a period of time, at least several months, having an air of reality for the child but no apparent objective basis”

Question 27

Imaginary companions: One study interviewed at ages 3-4 & again at ages 7-8

What percentage reported having an imaginary friend at one or both times?

Answer 27

63%

Question 28

Do all societies show evidence of imaginary companions? Are there any cultural differences?

Answer 28

every society studied so far has shown some evidence of this

Cultural prevalence:
- Australia (17%)
- Kenya (21%)
- China (34%)
- Dominican Republic (35%)
- Sweden (52%)
- USA (65%)

Question 29

What are the three types of imaginary companions?

Answer 29

• many are people (new people, modelled after versions of real people, character from movie or book)
• animals
• personified objects e.g., stuffed animal (but child actually believes this object has thoughts, feelings, etc.)

Question 30

Children often report doing what with imaginary companions?

Answer 30

having conflicts - (e.g., arguing, refusing to share, failing to leave/come)

Question 31

Children with imaginary friends are more likely to (4 things/characteristics of children)

Answer 31

• be first born or only children
• watch relatively little television
• be verbally skillful
• have advanced theories of mind

Question 32

Why do children have imaginary companions?

Answer 32

• companionship and entertainment
• comfort
• deflect blame
• vent anger
• convey information they are reluctant to directly state (e.g., “I’m not afraid of the dark but Alfie-Walfie is.”)

Question 33

Play fosters what 4 types of development? This shows what?

Answer 33

social-emotional development:
- learn how to cooperate, take turns, and try our social roles

cognitive development:
- opportunities to practice problem-solving, strengthen memory, express creativity

language development:
- coordinating behaviors requires communication among participants

physical development:
- coordination, balance, and strength

Shows learning across various domains.

Question 34

What are the three aspects of observational learning?

Answer 34

imitation
complex actions
intention

Question 35

Imitation is a form of ________________ that develops ______________

From a ___________ age children can imitate ____________ actions

Answer 35

observational learning
quickly

young
complex

Question 36

What was the experiment example demonstrating imitation as observational learning? How old were participants? What were the results? What does this tell us?

Answer 36

Turning light on with hands or forehead experiment - one group saw presenter (hands-free) turning it on with forehead. Another group saw presenter (wrapped in blanket - hands occupied) turning it on with forehead. Would they just imitate or take intention into account?

14 months old

More than 60% of infants in hands-free group used their head to turn on light

20% of infants in hands-occupied group used their head to turn on light

Assumed the person would have acted rationally and efficiently - considered intentions
Infants learn from observing people, but they don’t imitate everything!

Question 37

What is the “grit” experiment? How old were participants? What is the take home?

Answer 37

15 months

watched experimenter try to complete goal
some saw person try really hard for 30 secs to finally succeed
some saw her succeed immediately again and again
then they gave toy to infant to measure duration and effort to make it work
those who saw her display a lot of effort and finally succeed, they tried longer/harder to make toy work

Take home: not just learning how to do things but also more complex behaviours like grit

Question 38

What is the active learning experiment with novel objects? How old were participants? Result?

Answer 38

16 months

looked at a bunch of novel objects
asked child to point to which one they wanted to learn about
then they gave them a fact about the object they chose OR the one they didn’t choose
Result - they learned more about the one they cared about than the one they didn’t

Active engagement facilitates learning
16mo learn more about objects when they choose it themselves

Question 39

How does teaching affect exploration and learning? What is the term this is referred to?

Answer 39

Teaching affects exploration and learning
If children experience direct instruction (pedagogy), they explore and learn on their own less

double edge sword of pedagogy

Question 40

What was the active learning experiment with the multifaceted object? How old were the participants? What were the conditions? What was measured?

Answer 40

4- to 6-year-olds
toy with 4 functions

4 conditions:
Pedagogical: “I’m going to show you how my toy works.”
Interrupted: “I have to stop because I forgot to write something down over there.”
Naïve: “Huh! Did you see that? Let me try to do that!”
Baseline: “Look at this!”
“I’m going to let you play and see if you can figure out how this toy works”

Total play time
Proportion of time spent on the demonstrated function
Number of unique actions performed
Number of target functions

Question 41

What were the results of the multifaceted object experiment? What does this tell us?

Answer 41

Total play time:
pedagogical < interrupted, naïve, baseline

Number of unique actions performed: pedagogical < interrupted, naïve, baseline

Number of target functions:
pedagogical < interrupted, naïve, baseline

Proportion of time spent on the demonstrated function:
pedagogical > interrupted, naïve

TAKE AWAY:
the ones who had pedagogical training figured out less on their own and spent more time on the only function they were shown (not exploring others)

when you are being taught, you assume that they are teaching efficiently and giving you all the information you need - therefore, pedagogy can actually hinder exploration/learning

Question 42

What is the double edge sword of pedagogy?

Answer 42

During direct instruction (pedagogy) – learners assume that a helpful teacher will teach efficiently and provide/demonstrate everything needed to know

🡪 Pedagogy weakens children’s belief that they should/need to explore

Question 43

What did the first experiment in Van de Vondervoort & Friedman (2014) study address? How old were participants? What were the results? What was the take-home message?

Answer 43

Participants: 2- to 4-year-olds

Experiment 1
Q: Do children infer general rules that govern fantastical events in fiction?

Manipulated: whether children saw a demonstration - cat addressing other animals with their own sounds vs. no demonstration

Children in the demonstration condition were more likely to make the sounds of the other animal than children in the no-demonstration condition (The difference between the conditions increased with age b/c the score in the rule-demonstration condition increased with age)

Children age 2-4 years can infer fantasy rules governing fantastical scenarios and can apply these rules to generate novel predictions about what will happen
* this ability improves between these ages

Question 44

What did the second experiment in Van de Vondervoort & Friedman (2014) study address? How old were participants? What were the results? What was the take-home message?

Answer 44

Q: Do children infer these rules at the basic level (e.g., rules about cats) or at the superordinate level (e.g., rules about animals)?

Participants: 2- to 4-year-olds

Manipulated: whether the animal in the test trials was the same kind of animal as in the demonstration trials (cat or duck)

No effect of condition:
All children generalized the fantastical rule

Effect of age:
Older children were more likely than younger children to predict the speaker would make the sounds of the other animal

Take home:
Children age 2-4 years infer fantasy rules governing fantastical scenarios at a superordinate level rather than the basic level
* this ability improves between these ages

Question 45

What are emotions a combination of?

Emotions are more than just ______________.

Answer 45

Combination of physiological and cognitive responses to thoughts or experiences

feelings

Question 46

What are the 5 components of emotions?

Answer 46

Physiological factors - heart rate, breathing, pupils, etc.

Subjective feelings - we know what it feels like but how we experience them might be different from one another (how do I think about this emotion)

Emotional expressions - facial, voice

Desire to act

Neural responses - brain/body, neurons firing to process what’s happening, releasing hormones

Question 47

Emotional components example: seeing a bear… what are each of the components doing?

Are these happening in a particular order?

Answer 47

Physiological factors - Heart rate and breathing will increase

Subjective feelings - Identify that you are feeling “scared”

Emotional expressions - Eyes widen, eyebrows raised, mouth open

Desire to act - Desire to run

Neural responses - brain processes info, mobilize muscles

all of these things are happening so quickly that it is difficult to distinguish if they are in a particular order or all happening at the same time

Question 48

What are the nature/nurture questions about emotion?

Answer 48

Do we experience the physiological reaction first and then learn to call it fear?

OR

Do we cognitively assess a situation as one that is fear inducing and then experience the corresponding physiological reactions and facial expressions?

Question 49

What are the two theories formed to address the nature/nurture question about emotion?

Answer 49

Functionalist perspective

Discrete emotions theory

Question 50

What does the functionalist perspective argue emotions are? What is the basic function of emotions?

Answer 50

Argues that emotions are responses to how individuals appraise the environment and are used to manage the relationship between self and the environment. The basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal (goal-driven)

are we seeing our environment as being helpful or hindering?

Question 51

According to the functionalist perspective, what are the goals connected with the following emotions?

Disgust
Fear
Sadness

What are the action tendencies in response to these goals?

Answer 51

Avoiding contamination or illness - Reject the thing causing disgust

Maintain own physical and psychological integrity - Flight or withdrawal

Attain the end state of the current situation - Disengage or withdrawal

Question 52

According to the functionalist perspective, what are the 3 purposes of emotions?

Answer 52

promote survival: e.g., negative emotions = avoid harmful things

motivate action: without emotion, we wouldn’t act

communicate: signal caregiver to act

Question 53

According to the functionalist perspective, are emotions distinct from one another?

Emotions vary based on what?

Answer 53

NO - emotions are constantly changing but they are just general feelings that are not distinct from one another

vary based on the social environment

Question 54

According to the Discrete Emotions Theory, emotions are viewed as what two things? What do these things refer to? What is the main argument?

Answer 54

innate - neurological and biological systems have evolved to allow humans to experience and express a set of basic emotions from infancy

discrete - each emotion has a set of specific and distinct bodily and facial reactions

Emotions are largely automatic and not based on cognition or thoughts - appraisal is not needed because the emotions are automatic

Question 55

The Discrete Emotions Theory is associated with whom? What type of theory is it?

Answer 55

Charles Darwin

evolutionary theory

Question 56

What two things are used as evidence to support the Discrete Emotions Theory?

Answer 56

Infants express a set of recognizable, discrete emotions well before they can be actively taught about them

Similar emotional facial expressions (and vocalizations) have been observed around the world – including remote tribes - similar and recognizable across cultures

Question 57

What did the study of expression at the 2004 Olympic Games address? Results? Conclusions?

Answer 57

video - study of expression - 2004 Olympic Games - real-life, naturalistic and emotional

• compared blind person’s reactions in para-Olympics with the Olympics
• exact same reactions (differentiated winners and losers in the same ways)
• concluded that emotions must be innate

Question 58

Discrete emotions theory argues that these are the 6 basic emotions - each has distinct bodily/facial expressions

Answer 58

Happiness - smile, lifted cheeks, squinted eyes

Sadness - down-turned corners of mouth, inner brows raised

Anger - brows down and together, eyes fixed, flared nostrils, square mouth

Fear - brows raised, eyes wide open, mouth corners down

Surprise - brows raised, eyes wide open, mouth open

Disgust - nose wrinkled, nostrils flared, lips pulled back, tongue sticking out

Question 59

What is the reasoning behind the distinct, universal facial expressions associated with basic emotions according to the Discrete Emotions theory?

Answer 59

Evolutionary reasons - open eyes to take in as much as possible, stick out tongue to get rid of toxic substance, close eyes to protect them

Question 60

What are the five developmental stages of happiness?

Answer 60

Within first month: smile as reflex, sleep, touch (internal causes)

3-8 weeks: smile in reaction to external stimuli

6-7 weeks: social smiles - directed at people

3-4 months: laugh during activities (move from smiling to laughing)

7 months: smile at familiar people (start paying attention to who they are smiling at - more likely to smile at people they know than those they don’t know)

Question 61

What are the five developmental stages of fear?

Answer 61

4 months: unsure of unfamiliar objects and events

8 months: fear of strangers
(depends on temperament, parent presence, stranger’s approaching behavior)
- separation anxiety

~ 4 years: imaginary creatures (e.g., monsters)

5-6 years: animals, darkness

> 6 years: real-life issues (e.g., grades, health,
personal harm)

Question 62

Why is fear considered an adaptive response for infants?

Answer 62

because infants are not able to move themselves away from something harmful, they have to rely on others - if they show fear then the caregiver will help

Question 63

Separation anxiety is a ______ response which is adaptive because….

It develops around __ months but then declines around __ months.

What cultures have we seen this displayed in?

Answer 63

fear - adaptive because the behaviour of a child screaming will bring the caregiver back

8 months
15 months

this pattern is displayed in many cultures (e.g., USA, Israel, Africa)

Question 64

What are the four developmental stages of negative emotions (anger/sadness)?

Answer 64

< 1 year: anger & sadness together - meltdown is a combo of anger/sadness

1 year: clearly express anger (frustrated)

18-24 months: anger as a reaction to a situation peaks

3-6 years: anger declines (language, intentions)

Question 65

What is emotion regulation?

Answer 65

a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions

Question 66

What are the three emotion regulation strategies which progress over time?

Answer 66

Co-regulation: caregiver provides comfort or distraction to help the child reduce distress (externally controlled)

Self-comforting behaviors: repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation

Self-distraction: looking away from upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one’s arousal

Question 67

At what age do infants being to engage in self-comforting behaviours? What are these behaviours?

When do they start engaging in self-distraction?

Answer 67

by 5 months they can start engaging in self-comforting behaviours (sucking thumb, rubbing tag, rocking themselves)

self-distraction - over the first year of life

Question 68

By ____________, infants can distinguish expressions of happiness, surprise, anger
- How do we know this?

By _____________, also distinguish between fear and sadness

By _____________, can use a caregiver’s (or other adult’s) facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations
-what is this called?

Answer 68

3 months
-shown in dishabituation studies and brain wave studies

7 months

1 year
-social referencing

Question 69

An infant will look at a caregiver to see how to react to a novel object/situation (e.g., depending on the caregiver’s reaction, they will decide how to act - approach or not approach box)
What is this called?
What is this a form of?

Answer 69

social referencing

understanding emotions

Question 70

By ________, a child can label emotions (happy, anger, fear, sadness)

By age _________, they can reliably label images as “disgust”

Answer 70

3 years

9 years

Question 71

What is the role of the family in emotional development?

Answer 71

Modelling can help children understand what types of emotional expressions are appropriate (parents’ emotion expressions and failure to express emotions) - indirect influence

Reactions to children’s emotions - direct influence

Question 72

Children of parents who exhibit more positive emotions are more ____________ and __________, have lower _________ and higher __________. They are better at….

Children of parents who exhibit more negative emotions have lower _____________ and more….

Answer 72

more socially-skilled and well adjusted
lower aggression and higher self-esteem
better understanding others’ emotions

lower social competence
more negative emotions (anxiety, depression)

Question 73

What is the still-face paradigm? Age of participants? Conditions? Results? Take-away?

Answer 73

Question: Are infants attuned to their mothers’ emotions?

~4 mo mothers were assigned to:
- control condition: play for 10 minutes
- experimental condition:
play for 2 mins, ”still face” 2 mins (x2)

Video - infants are extremely reactive - coordinating emotions/intentions when playing - still face - baby tries to get mom engaged then begins to get upset, screeching, reacting with negative emotions, avert their gaze, try to turn around, experiences stress, cries - when mom re-engages, baby can go back to engaged/happy

Results: Still-face group had more episodes of looking away from mother and more time experiencing distress

Take away: Are infants attuned to their mothers’ emotions? YES

Question 74

Parents who dismiss/criticize their children’s emotions or react with anger/threats do what?

These children are more likely to have what characteristics?

Answer 74

communicate that their feelings are not valid

less emotionally and socially competent
(lower in sympathy, less skilled at coping with stress, more likely to express anger and aggression)

Question 75

Parents who are supportive of their children’s varied emotions do what?

These children are more likely to have what characteristics?

Answer 75

parents who are supportive when their children are upset HELP them regulate their emotions & find ways to express their emotions constructively

more socially competent, perform better in school

Question 76

What are the cultural differences between Western mothers and Chinese mothers in reacting to children’s emotions (especially with shame or sadness)? What are the different centers of focus?

Answer 76

Western = help them feel better about themselves
» more likely to talk about internal emotional states .. how are you feeling???

Chinese = take these situations as opportunities to teach children how to conduct themselves appropriately & help them understand how to CONFORM to social expectations and norms
» They’re more likely to focus on behaviors that can cause or resolve emotional states

Question 77

What did the Ruba, Kalia & Willbourn (2020) study address? (generally and specifically)

Answer 77

Q: Why do children acquire and use labels for certain emotions (e.g., happy, sad) much earlier in development than other emotions (e.g., disgust)?

Whether emotion talk quality (e.g., types of questions and labelling statements) differs based on specific emotions

Whether these patterns of parental emotion talk relate to children’s later vocabulary development

Question 78

Ruba study re how parents talk to their infants about different emotions - age of participants? Method? What did they measure? Results?

Answer 78

Parents and 12 to 24-month-old infants

• How parents talk to their infants about different emotions during a book-sharing task (Didn’t tell the parents how to talk about the book/emotions - wordless picture book with (16) pictures of children displaying anger, happy, sad, disgust, fear, neutral)

Measured emotion state labels (happy, sad, upset, grumpy, cranky, frightened, excited…)
and emotion proxy labels (smile, laugh, scary, icky, gross, stinky, pout…)
Quantity (frequency) and
Quality - the manner in which parents talk about emotions, such as labeling emotions or asking questions

Results for quantity:
*Parents used more words to describe disgust pages compared with all the other emotion pages
*Parents used more emotion proxy labels on disgust pages than anger pages
*Parents used more happy and sad emotion state labels than all other emotion pages
*BUT… parents used fewer emotion state labels on disgust pages compared with all other pages
*Parents used more words and emotion proxy labels on happy and sad pages compared with fear and anger pages

Results for quality:
- more non-emotional elaborated statements on disgust > all
- more non-emotional descriptive questions disgust > sad, anger, fear
- used fewer emotion labelling statements on disgust > all
- used fewer emotion descriptive questions on disgust > all

parental talk variables NOT correlated with infants’ understanding of vocab
but
causal questions are correlated with infants’ production of emotion state labels - THE QUESTIONS ARE THE KEY

Question 79

What are the three main take-away messages from the Ruba (parent talk about emotions) study?

Answer 79

Parents focus on elaborating and asking questions about the behaviors and surrounding context of disgust (rather than label)

While no parent used disgust emotion state labels, most used disgust emotion proxy labels (e.g., “That food is smelly”) – drawing the infant’s attention to the referent - drawing attention to the referent is adaptive (draw attention to the thing that may be dangerous, not the person who is disgusted by it)

Possible that elaborative and non-emotional talk delays learning and labels for disgust; while labelling emotional states and behaviors help children learn labels for happiness and sadness

Question 80

What are two real-world situations that the still-face paradigm results apply to? What emotional regulation skill are infants using when mom is doing still face?

Answer 80

relates to phone usage - looking away from infants/children

relates to postpartum depression - not engaging with infants

self-distraction

Question 81

What facilitates learning when children choose topics/items themselves to learn about? At what age did we see this demonstrated?

Answer 81

active engagement

16 months - chose object to learn about

Question 82

What are prosocial behaviours?

What are antisocial behaviours?

Answer 82

Prosocial behaviors: voluntary behaviors intended to benefit another (e.g., helping, sharing, comforting)

Antisocial behaviors: disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behavior that violates social norms or rules and that harms or takes advantage of others

Question 83

What experiment addressed the question of when infants begin to reason about prosocial/antisocial behaviours? What was the youngest age? Methods? Results?

Answer 83

Video - shape puppets - good guy and bad guy
- one helps another character up the hill “helper”- other bumps the character down the hill “hindered”

• infants are asked to choose between the puppets

Results - 80% choose helpful character

4.5 months is the youngest that seems to have this reasoning - but these findings have been criticized because not replicated - now part of the Many Babies Project

Question 84

What was the follow-up study done on the “helper” and “hinderer” study? What were the results?

What do the results of both studies indicate?

Answer 84

follow-up - more surprised when agent tried to approach hinderer at 10-months

Take home argument - Humans may have an innate preference for actions that help others over ones that hinder
- innate preferences are building blocks to learn about morality/society

Question 85

What was the “punishment” follow-up study to the “helper” and “hinderer” study? Age of participants? Methods? Results? What does this tell us?

Answer 85

20 months

would the infant give the “preferred toy” to the prosocial or antisocial puppet?

-mostly gave the preferred toy to the prosocial puppet
- mostly gave the unpreferred toy or nothing to the antisocial puppet (punishing)

Infants engage in punishing antisocial behaviour

Question 86

Prosocial behaviours are rooted in the capacity to feel what two things?

Answer 86

empathy and sympathy

Question 87

What is the difference between empathy and sympathy?

Answer 87

Empathy: an emotional response that reflects another person’s state or condition (understanding and sharing someone else’s emotions)
“I feel your pain”

Sympathy: feeling of concern for another person in response to their emotional state or condition
* experiencing sympathy does not mean merely feeling the same emotion
“I’m sorry that you’re in pain”

Question 88

When do infants begin to exhibit prosocial behaviours? Do they show empathy or sympathy first? At what ages do we see these behaviours?

Answer 88

empathy seems to exist before 14 mos and then they start showing sympathy (concern rather than simply mirroring response)

18-25 mos - try to share objects to try to comfort others or try to get caregiver to try to comfort the other

18 months: help altruistically and cooperate - try to help strangers altruistically (no benefit to themselves)

3-year-olds: less likely to help those who previously harmed someone and who attempted harm than those who previously helped or accidentally caused harm

Question 89

What three things can parents do to socialize prosocial behaviour in their children?

Answer 89

Modeling and teaching prosocial behaviors

Arranging opportunities for children to engage in prosocial behavior (e.g., household chores that benefit more than just themselves - increases competence)

Disciplining and eliciting prosocial behaviors
(supportive > sympathy > prosocial)

Question 90

What will happen if a child is only ever disciplined or awarded for using prosocial behaviours (without support and sympathy)?

Answer 90

If they are only ever disciplined for not using prosocial behaviours they will start to believe the only reason to behave this way is to avoid punishment - vice versa for only behaving prosocially for rewards

Question 91

What are the two types of aggression (antisocial behaviour)? What is the difference between the two?

Answer 91

instrumental aggression (goal-based, intentional, planned)

relational aggression (damage relationships)

Question 92

When do we typically see infants/children engaging in antisocial behaviours? Ages? Types of aggression? Reasons for aggression?

Answer 92

18 months – 2/3 years: physical aggression (hitting, pushing) particularly over objects (instrumental aggression)

3 years+: physical aggression decreases, verbal aggression increases (e.g., taunting)
(relational aggression)

Question 93

What is the take-home message about prosocial/antisocial behaviours in children? From infancy, children do what three things?

Answer 93

differentiate between prosocial and antisocial others

engage in prosocial behaviors (altruistic helping, comforting, cooperating) – though not with others with an antisocial history

engage in antisocial behaviors
instrumental aggression (physical conflicts over objects) 🡪
relational aggression (exclusion, taunting)

Question 94

Re development of fairness and sharing: What is the difference between judgments and actions (decisions)?

Answer 94

Judgments: 3rd party - observing others having an interaction

Actions/Decisions: 1st person - deciding whether something they are involved in is fair for them/others in the situation

Question 95

At what age do children know the right thing to do is to share equally? What are the caveats to this in first-person tasks? What does this tell us?

Answer 95

3-year-olds: know the right thing to do is share equally

• …but do not share equally
• … and know they would not share equally

-they know they should but they don’t
-they understand their own intentions about not sharing equally

Question 96

At what age do children reject allocations that put them at a disadvantage? What is this called?

At what age do children reject allocations that put them at an advantage? What is this called?

Answer 96

4-year-olds: reject allocations that put self at a disadvantage
(disadvantageous inequity)

8-year-old: reject allocations that put self at an advantage
(advantageous inequity)

Question 97

What is the disadvantageous/advantageous inequity experiment? Methods? Results?

Answer 97

experiment where one child makes a decision about distribution and then other child can either agree to it or get rid of the whole thing (nobody gets anything) -

Results:

at 4 years old they will get rid of the whole thing if they are put at a disadvantage

at age 8 they start rejecting themselves as being at an advantage - will flip the whole thing if they are put at an advantage

Question 98

What question did Sloane et al (2012) address (generally and specifically) in the two experiments? Ages?

Answer 98

General: Do infants expect others to be fair?

Specifically:
Do infants (19mo) expect others to share resources equally?
Do infants (21-mo) expect others to reward others based on effort?

Question 99

Sloane et al (fairness) experiment #1:
Age?
Methods?
Conditions?
Why was each control condition used?

Answer 99

19-mos

Methods: Two toy ducks, two edible cookies, and two toy cars were distributed in the three pairs of trials to two giraffes.

3 conditions:

Experimental condition - animate giraffes:
(equal, unequal) - toy cars/toy ducks/edible cookies

Inanimate control condition:
(equal, unequal) similar except that the giraffes were inanimate: they did not move or talk and simply faced forward

Cover control condition:
(equal, unequal) similar to experimental condition except that objects were not given, they were revealed from under a cover

Inanimate control used to rule out the possibility that infants prefer symmetrical displays

Cover control used to rule out the possibility that infants expect similar individuals to have similar numbers

Question 100

What were the results of Sloane et al - Experiment #1? What three conclusions can we make?

Answer 100

Experimental condition - looked longer for unequal distribution

Inanimate - approx equal looking time

Cover - aaprox equal looking time

Conclusions:
Infants expect resources to be equally distributed to animate beings

Infants don’t expect resources to be distributed equally to inanimate objects

Infants don’t just expect similar individuals to have similar amounts of items

Question 101

Sloane et al (fairness) experiment #2:
Age?
Methods?
Conditions?

Answer 101

21 months (b/c linguistically demanding task)
Do infants expect people to consider effort when distributing rewards?

Infants see either:
1 works = worker & slacker
both works = both put away toys

All infants see both individuals (worker and slacker) get a resource

3 conditions:
1. Experimental (explicit)
(told about the reward) “It’s time to clean up the toys. If you put the toys away, you can have a sticker.”

2. Implicit (not told about rewards)
3. Control
   (½ = all opaque;
   ½ = opaque exp window for infants/not experimenter)
   same as explicit = told about rewards
   sometimes rewarder couldn’t see contents of the boxes

Question 102

What were the results of Sloane et al - Experiment #2? What conclusion can we make?

Answer 102

Infants looked longer at one-works event in both explicit and implicit conditions. (surprised when the worker & slacker were rewarded equally)

Infants looked approximately equally in the control condition (opaque)

Conclusion:
Infants expect individuals to be rewarded according to their efforts
(but only when their efforts are known to the distributor)

Question 103

What is the overall take-home message from the Sloane experiments?

Answer 103

Infants have expectations about fairness that are context specific

Early-emerging concern for fairness

Question 104

How are sociodramatic play and object substitution different from each other?

Answer 104

sociodramatic play is more complex

Question 105

When 14 month olds are observing/learning from others, what two things do they expect others to be?

Answer 105

rational and efficient

Question 106

What is the appraisal process of the functionalist perspective (3 steps)? What level does this happen at?

Answer 106

goal connected with emotion (Avoid contamination/illness)

meaning regarding self (This stimulus may make me ill)

action tendency (Reject stimulus)

the appraisal process happens at a subconscious level but emotions are goal driven