TEST 3 Flashcards
What is the definition of play?
What three things are mandatory for an activity to be considered play?
activities that are pursued for their own sake, with no motivation other than the enjoyment they bring
enjoyable, active, voluntary
If a child is awarded for doing something, can it be considered play?
No
If a child is ambivalent about participating in an activity, is it play?
No
What are the two types of play?
non-social
social
What did Mildred Parten study? How did she study this?
Does children’s play follow a developmental sequence? Does it change with age?
observed children for 7 months
What are the 6 stages of play? Which are non-social and which are social?
Ages?
These stages increase in ____________ and _____________.
Non-social types of play:
1. Unoccupied play
2. Onlooker play
3. Solitary play
Social types of play:
4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Cooperative play
increase in complexity and interaction
1-3 - least complex = up to age 2
4-6 - most complex = 4 years old and older
What defines the non-social types of play? What are they?
Play that does not involve the active participation of peers
- Unoccupied play
- Onlooker play
- Solitary play
Explain each of the three non-social types of play.
Unoccupied play: child watches the environment, but only briefly ( doesn’t have to be other people - they are only going to attend to things briefly - will not hold their attention for very long)
Onlooker play: child watches other children’s play, may ask questions about the play, will not try to join (even though they are asking questions (curious), they are not trying to participate)
Solitary play: child is engaged in own activities, doesn’t attend to the behaviors of others (all children at some point engage in solitary play but some more than others)
What defines the social types of play? What are they?
Play that involves social interactions
- Parallel play
- Associative play
- Cooperative play
Explain each of the three types of social play.
Parallel play: plays beside (but not with) others, typically engaged in similar activities (independent) - not working together/talking together/collaborative
Associative play: plays with others in a common activity, may share or comment, but don’t coordinate or have the same goal - may be paying attention to other people/may be interacting and talking to each other but do not have the same goal - e.g., not building a tower together
Cooperative play: plays with peers in an organized activity with a goal - organized, shared goal (e.g., playing a game together, enacting a play, building a tower together)
The majority of children engaging in solitary and parallel play are in what age range?
In this age range, are they more frequently engaging in solitary or parallel play?
2-2.5 years old
parallel
The majority of children engaging in associative and cooperative play are in what age range?
In this age range, are they more frequently engaging in associative or cooperative play?
4-4.5 years old
associative
What are the two types of fantastical play? What two forms can fantastical play take?
Pretend play
Sociodramatic play
solitary or cooperative
What age range engages in pretend play?
12-18 months
What is pretend play? What do children create? What do children often engage in when practicing pretend play?
make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations
- act as if they were in a situation different from their actual one
object substitution - a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself
Why is object substitution different from dual representation?
different from dual rep because it does not have to have the features of the real thing it represents whereas in dual rep it does
What does object substitution enable children to do?
enables children to pursue play activities even when they don’t have the exact objects for those activities
The earliest interactions of pretend play are between parents and infants - how do parents convey to infants that the activities are pretend?
signals/cues = strong eye contact, smiling
e.g., slow (jerky) movements, smiling, pretend actions (e.g., exaggerated biting that is not real)
What age range engages in sociodramatic play?
~2 years and older
What is sociodramatic play?
activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children and adults
does not have to be with a caregiver
Sociodramatic play is based on a child’s ________________ and reflects __________________ of situations and helps them to ________________ this.
What are they practicing?
What are they learning?
experiences
understanding
increase this understanding
practicing schemas
learning roles/order of events/social expectations
What are the benefits of fantastical play?
What else could these benefits be attributed to though?
social and intellectual development:
-expand children’s understanding of the social world (e.g., doctor)
-understand people’s thoughts and emotions (theory of mind)
parental influence (their scaffolding gives cues and models their values)
What cultural differences are there in fantastical play? What are the children learning to do using these themes of play? What does this relate to?
American children tend to play superheroes and act out themes of danger and fantasy 🡪 learning to assert their individual identities
Korean children tend to focus on family roles and everyday activities 🡪 learn how to control their egos and emotions to achieve group harmony
Cultural differences in values (individualism vs. collectivism - parents’ values)
At what age do children begin to play structured games? How are these defined? What is the difference between these and pretend play?
~ 5 years (elementary school) and older: activities with conventional rules
e.g., sports, board games
rules which are stricter than pretend play
What did Piaget believe children learn from playing games?
Piaget believed that by playing games, children learned that rules are the products of social agreements & can be changed with consensus, develop beliefs about fairness
What is the definition of an imaginary companion?
“an invisible character, named and referred to in conversation with other persons or played with directly for a period of time, at least several months, having an air of reality for the child but no apparent objective basis”
Imaginary companions: One study interviewed at ages 3-4 & again at ages 7-8
What percentage reported having an imaginary friend at one or both times?
63%
Do all societies show evidence of imaginary companions? Are there any cultural differences?
every society studied so far has shown some evidence of this
Cultural prevalence:
- Australia (17%)
- Kenya (21%)
- China (34%)
- Dominican Republic (35%)
- Sweden (52%)
- USA (65%)
What are the three types of imaginary companions?
- many are people (new people, modelled after versions of real people, character from movie or book)
- animals
- personified objects e.g., stuffed animal (but child actually believes this object has thoughts, feelings, etc.)
Children often report doing what with imaginary companions?
having conflicts - (e.g., arguing, refusing to share, failing to leave/come)
Children with imaginary friends are more likely to (4 things/characteristics of children)
- be first born or only children
- watch relatively little television
- be verbally skillful
- have advanced theories of mind
Why do children have imaginary companions?
- companionship and entertainment
- comfort
- deflect blame
- vent anger
- convey information they are reluctant to directly state (e.g., “I’m not afraid of the dark but Alfie-Walfie is.”)
Play fosters what 4 types of development? This shows what?
social-emotional development:
- learn how to cooperate, take turns, and try our social roles
cognitive development:
- opportunities to practice problem-solving, strengthen memory, express creativity
language development:
- coordinating behaviors requires communication among participants
physical development:
- coordination, balance, and strength
Shows learning across various domains.
What are the three aspects of observational learning?
imitation
complex actions
intention
Imitation is a form of ________________ that develops ______________
From a ___________ age children can imitate ____________ actions
observational learning
quickly
young
complex
What was the experiment example demonstrating imitation as observational learning? How old were participants? What were the results? What does this tell us?
Turning light on with hands or forehead experiment - one group saw presenter (hands-free) turning it on with forehead. Another group saw presenter (wrapped in blanket - hands occupied) turning it on with forehead. Would they just imitate or take intention into account?
14 months old
More than 60% of infants in hands-free group used their head to turn on light
20% of infants in hands-occupied group used their head to turn on light
Assumed the person would have acted rationally and efficiently - considered intentions
Infants learn from observing people, but they don’t imitate everything!
What is the “grit” experiment? How old were participants? What is the take home?
15 months
watched experimenter try to complete goal
some saw person try really hard for 30 secs to finally succeed
some saw her succeed immediately again and again
then they gave toy to infant to measure duration and effort to make it work
those who saw her display a lot of effort and finally succeed, they tried longer/harder to make toy work
Take home: not just learning how to do things but also more complex behaviours like grit
What is the active learning experiment with novel objects? How old were participants? Result?
16 months
looked at a bunch of novel objects
asked child to point to which one they wanted to learn about
then they gave them a fact about the object they chose OR the one they didn’t choose
Result - they learned more about the one they cared about than the one they didn’t
Active engagement facilitates learning
16mo learn more about objects when they choose it themselves
How does teaching affect exploration and learning? What is the term this is referred to?
Teaching affects exploration and learning
If children experience direct instruction (pedagogy), they explore and learn on their own less
double edge sword of pedagogy
What was the active learning experiment with the multifaceted object? How old were the participants? What were the conditions? What was measured?
4- to 6-year-olds
toy with 4 functions
4 conditions:
Pedagogical: “I’m going to show you how my toy works.”
Interrupted: “I have to stop because I forgot to write something down over there.”
Naïve: “Huh! Did you see that? Let me try to do that!”
Baseline: “Look at this!”
“I’m going to let you play and see if you can figure out how this toy works”
Total play time
Proportion of time spent on the demonstrated function
Number of unique actions performed
Number of target functions
What were the results of the multifaceted object experiment? What does this tell us?
Total play time:
pedagogical < interrupted, naïve, baseline
Number of unique actions performed: pedagogical < interrupted, naïve, baseline
Number of target functions:
pedagogical < interrupted, naïve, baseline
Proportion of time spent on the demonstrated function:
pedagogical > interrupted, naïve
TAKE AWAY:
the ones who had pedagogical training figured out less on their own and spent more time on the only function they were shown (not exploring others)
when you are being taught, you assume that they are teaching efficiently and giving you all the information you need - therefore, pedagogy can actually hinder exploration/learning
What is the double edge sword of pedagogy?
During direct instruction (pedagogy) – learners assume that a helpful teacher will teach efficiently and provide/demonstrate everything needed to know
🡪 Pedagogy weakens children’s belief that they should/need to explore
What did the first experiment in Van de Vondervoort & Friedman (2014) study address? How old were participants? What were the results? What was the take-home message?
Participants: 2- to 4-year-olds
Experiment 1
Q: Do children infer general rules that govern fantastical events in fiction?
Manipulated: whether children saw a demonstration - cat addressing other animals with their own sounds vs. no demonstration
Children in the demonstration condition were more likely to make the sounds of the other animal than children in the no-demonstration condition (The difference between the conditions increased with age b/c the score in the rule-demonstration condition increased with age)
Children age 2-4 years can infer fantasy rules governing fantastical scenarios and can apply these rules to generate novel predictions about what will happen
* this ability improves between these ages
What did the second experiment in Van de Vondervoort & Friedman (2014) study address? How old were participants? What were the results? What was the take-home message?
Q: Do children infer these rules at the basic level (e.g., rules about cats) or at the superordinate level (e.g., rules about animals)?
Participants: 2- to 4-year-olds
Manipulated: whether the animal in the test trials was the same kind of animal as in the demonstration trials (cat or duck)
No effect of condition:
All children generalized the fantastical rule
Effect of age:
Older children were more likely than younger children to predict the speaker would make the sounds of the other animal
Take home:
Children age 2-4 years infer fantasy rules governing fantastical scenarios at a superordinate level rather than the basic level
* this ability improves between these ages
What are emotions a combination of?
Emotions are more than just ______________.
Combination of physiological and cognitive responses to thoughts or experiences
feelings
What are the 5 components of emotions?
Physiological factors - heart rate, breathing, pupils, etc.
Subjective feelings - we know what it feels like but how we experience them might be different from one another (how do I think about this emotion)
Emotional expressions - facial, voice
Desire to act
Neural responses - brain/body, neurons firing to process what’s happening, releasing hormones
Emotional components example: seeing a bear… what are each of the components doing?
Are these happening in a particular order?
Physiological factors - Heart rate and breathing will increase
Subjective feelings - Identify that you are feeling “scared”
Emotional expressions - Eyes widen, eyebrows raised, mouth open
Desire to act - Desire to run
Neural responses - brain processes info, mobilize muscles
all of these things are happening so quickly that it is difficult to distinguish if they are in a particular order or all happening at the same time
What are the nature/nurture questions about emotion?
Do we experience the physiological reaction first and then learn to call it fear?
OR
Do we cognitively assess a situation as one that is fear inducing and then experience the corresponding physiological reactions and facial expressions?
What are the two theories formed to address the nature/nurture question about emotion?
Functionalist perspective
Discrete emotions theory
What does the functionalist perspective argue emotions are? What is the basic function of emotions?
Argues that emotions are responses to how individuals appraise the environment and are used to manage the relationship between self and the environment. The basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal (goal-driven)
are we seeing our environment as being helpful or hindering?
According to the functionalist perspective, what are the goals connected with the following emotions?
Disgust
Fear
Sadness
What are the action tendencies in response to these goals?
Avoiding contamination or illness - Reject the thing causing disgust
Maintain own physical and psychological integrity - Flight or withdrawal
Attain the end state of the current situation - Disengage or withdrawal
According to the functionalist perspective, what are the 3 purposes of emotions?
promote survival: e.g., negative emotions = avoid harmful things
motivate action: without emotion, we wouldn’t act
communicate: signal caregiver to act
According to the functionalist perspective, are emotions distinct from one another?
Emotions vary based on what?
NO - emotions are constantly changing but they are just general feelings that are not distinct from one another
vary based on the social environment
According to the Discrete Emotions Theory, emotions are viewed as what two things? What do these things refer to? What is the main argument?
innate - neurological and biological systems have evolved to allow humans to experience and express a set of basic emotions from infancy
discrete - each emotion has a set of specific and distinct bodily and facial reactions
Emotions are largely automatic and not based on cognition or thoughts - appraisal is not needed because the emotions are automatic
The Discrete Emotions Theory is associated with whom? What type of theory is it?
Charles Darwin
evolutionary theory
What two things are used as evidence to support the Discrete Emotions Theory?
Infants express a set of recognizable, discrete emotions well before they can be actively taught about them
Similar emotional facial expressions (and vocalizations) have been observed around the world – including remote tribes - similar and recognizable across cultures
What did the study of expression at the 2004 Olympic Games address? Results? Conclusions?
video - study of expression - 2004 Olympic Games - real-life, naturalistic and emotional
- compared blind person’s reactions in para-Olympics with the Olympics
- exact same reactions (differentiated winners and losers in the same ways)
- concluded that emotions must be innate
Discrete emotions theory argues that these are the 6 basic emotions - each has distinct bodily/facial expressions
Happiness - smile, lifted cheeks, squinted eyes
Sadness - down-turned corners of mouth, inner brows raised
Anger - brows down and together, eyes fixed, flared nostrils, square mouth
Fear - brows raised, eyes wide open, mouth corners down
Surprise - brows raised, eyes wide open, mouth open
Disgust - nose wrinkled, nostrils flared, lips pulled back, tongue sticking out
What is the reasoning behind the distinct, universal facial expressions associated with basic emotions according to the Discrete Emotions theory?
Evolutionary reasons - open eyes to take in as much as possible, stick out tongue to get rid of toxic substance, close eyes to protect them
What are the five developmental stages of happiness?
Within first month: smile as reflex, sleep, touch (internal causes)
3-8 weeks: smile in reaction to external stimuli
6-7 weeks: social smiles - directed at people
3-4 months: laugh during activities (move from smiling to laughing)
7 months: smile at familiar people (start paying attention to who they are smiling at - more likely to smile at people they know than those they don’t know)
What are the five developmental stages of fear?
4 months: unsure of unfamiliar objects and events
8 months: fear of strangers
(depends on temperament, parent presence, stranger’s approaching behavior)
- separation anxiety
~ 4 years: imaginary creatures (e.g., monsters)
5-6 years: animals, darkness
> 6 years: real-life issues (e.g., grades, health,
personal harm)
Why is fear considered an adaptive response for infants?
because infants are not able to move themselves away from something harmful, they have to rely on others - if they show fear then the caregiver will help
Separation anxiety is a ______ response which is adaptive because….
It develops around __ months but then declines around __ months.
What cultures have we seen this displayed in?
fear - adaptive because the behaviour of a child screaming will bring the caregiver back
8 months
15 months
this pattern is displayed in many cultures (e.g., USA, Israel, Africa)
What are the four developmental stages of negative emotions (anger/sadness)?
< 1 year: anger & sadness together - meltdown is a combo of anger/sadness
1 year: clearly express anger (frustrated)
18-24 months: anger as a reaction to a situation peaks
3-6 years: anger declines (language, intentions)
What is emotion regulation?
a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
What are the three emotion regulation strategies which progress over time?
Co-regulation: caregiver provides comfort or distraction to help the child reduce distress (externally controlled)
Self-comforting behaviors: repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
Self-distraction: looking away from upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one’s arousal
At what age do infants being to engage in self-comforting behaviours? What are these behaviours?
When do they start engaging in self-distraction?
by 5 months they can start engaging in self-comforting behaviours (sucking thumb, rubbing tag, rocking themselves)
self-distraction - over the first year of life
By ____________, infants can distinguish expressions of happiness, surprise, anger
- How do we know this?
By _____________, also distinguish between fear and sadness
By _____________, can use a caregiver’s (or other adult’s) facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations
-what is this called?
3 months
-shown in dishabituation studies and brain wave studies
7 months
1 year
-social referencing
An infant will look at a caregiver to see how to react to a novel object/situation (e.g., depending on the caregiver’s reaction, they will decide how to act - approach or not approach box)
What is this called?
What is this a form of?
social referencing
understanding emotions
By ________, a child can label emotions (happy, anger, fear, sadness)
By age _________, they can reliably label images as “disgust”
3 years
9 years
What is the role of the family in emotional development?
Modelling can help children understand what types of emotional expressions are appropriate (parents’ emotion expressions and failure to express emotions) - indirect influence
Reactions to children’s emotions - direct influence
Children of parents who exhibit more positive emotions are more ____________ and __________, have lower _________ and higher __________. They are better at….
Children of parents who exhibit more negative emotions have lower _____________ and more….
more socially-skilled and well adjusted
lower aggression and higher self-esteem
better understanding others’ emotions
lower social competence
more negative emotions (anxiety, depression)
What is the still-face paradigm? Age of participants? Conditions? Results? Take-away?
Question: Are infants attuned to their mothers’ emotions?
~4 mo mothers were assigned to:
- control condition: play for 10 minutes
- experimental condition:
play for 2 mins, ”still face” 2 mins (x2)
Video - infants are extremely reactive - coordinating emotions/intentions when playing - still face - baby tries to get mom engaged then begins to get upset, screeching, reacting with negative emotions, avert their gaze, try to turn around, experiences stress, cries - when mom re-engages, baby can go back to engaged/happy
Results: Still-face group had more episodes of looking away from mother and more time experiencing distress
Take away: Are infants attuned to their mothers’ emotions? YES
Parents who dismiss/criticize their children’s emotions or react with anger/threats do what?
These children are more likely to have what characteristics?
communicate that their feelings are not valid
less emotionally and socially competent
(lower in sympathy, less skilled at coping with stress, more likely to express anger and aggression)
Parents who are supportive of their children’s varied emotions do what?
These children are more likely to have what characteristics?
parents who are supportive when their children are upset HELP them regulate their emotions & find ways to express their emotions constructively
more socially competent, perform better in school
What are the cultural differences between Western mothers and Chinese mothers in reacting to children’s emotions (especially with shame or sadness)? What are the different centers of focus?
Western = help them feel better about themselves
» more likely to talk about internal emotional states .. how are you feeling???
Chinese = take these situations as opportunities to teach children how to conduct themselves appropriately & help them understand how to CONFORM to social expectations and norms
» They’re more likely to focus on behaviors that can cause or resolve emotional states
What did the Ruba, Kalia & Willbourn (2020) study address? (generally and specifically)
Q: Why do children acquire and use labels for certain emotions (e.g., happy, sad) much earlier in development than other emotions (e.g., disgust)?
Whether emotion talk quality (e.g., types of questions and labelling statements) differs based on specific emotions
Whether these patterns of parental emotion talk relate to children’s later vocabulary development
Ruba study re how parents talk to their infants about different emotions - age of participants? Method? What did they measure? Results?
Parents and 12 to 24-month-old infants
- How parents talk to their infants about different emotions during a book-sharing task (Didn’t tell the parents how to talk about the book/emotions - wordless picture book with (16) pictures of children displaying anger, happy, sad, disgust, fear, neutral)
Measured emotion state labels (happy, sad, upset, grumpy, cranky, frightened, excited…)
and emotion proxy labels (smile, laugh, scary, icky, gross, stinky, pout…)
Quantity (frequency) and
Quality - the manner in which parents talk about emotions, such as labeling emotions or asking questions
Results for quantity:
*Parents used more words to describe disgust pages compared with all the other emotion pages
*Parents used more emotion proxy labels on disgust pages than anger pages
*Parents used more happy and sad emotion state labels than all other emotion pages
*BUT… parents used fewer emotion state labels on disgust pages compared with all other pages
*Parents used more words and emotion proxy labels on happy and sad pages compared with fear and anger pages
Results for quality:
- more non-emotional elaborated statements on disgust > all
- more non-emotional descriptive questions disgust > sad, anger, fear
- used fewer emotion labelling statements on disgust > all
- used fewer emotion descriptive questions on disgust > all
parental talk variables NOT correlated with infants’ understanding of vocab
but
causal questions are correlated with infants’ production of emotion state labels - THE QUESTIONS ARE THE KEY
What are the three main take-away messages from the Ruba (parent talk about emotions) study?
Parents focus on elaborating and asking questions about the behaviors and surrounding context of disgust (rather than label)
While no parent used disgust emotion state labels, most used disgust emotion proxy labels (e.g., “That food is smelly”) – drawing the infant’s attention to the referent - drawing attention to the referent is adaptive (draw attention to the thing that may be dangerous, not the person who is disgusted by it)
Possible that elaborative and non-emotional talk delays learning and labels for disgust; while labelling emotional states and behaviors help children learn labels for happiness and sadness
What are two real-world situations that the still-face paradigm results apply to? What emotional regulation skill are infants using when mom is doing still face?
relates to phone usage - looking away from infants/children
relates to postpartum depression - not engaging with infants
self-distraction
What facilitates learning when children choose topics/items themselves to learn about? At what age did we see this demonstrated?
active engagement
16 months - chose object to learn about
What are prosocial behaviours?
What are antisocial behaviours?
Prosocial behaviors: voluntary behaviors intended to benefit another (e.g., helping, sharing, comforting)
Antisocial behaviors: disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behavior that violates social norms or rules and that harms or takes advantage of others
What experiment addressed the question of when infants begin to reason about prosocial/antisocial behaviours? What was the youngest age? Methods? Results?
Video - shape puppets - good guy and bad guy
- one helps another character up the hill “helper”- other bumps the character down the hill “hindered”
- infants are asked to choose between the puppets
Results - 80% choose helpful character
4.5 months is the youngest that seems to have this reasoning - but these findings have been criticized because not replicated - now part of the Many Babies Project
What was the follow-up study done on the “helper” and “hinderer” study? What were the results?
What do the results of both studies indicate?
follow-up - more surprised when agent tried to approach hinderer at 10-months
Take home argument - Humans may have an innate preference for actions that help others over ones that hinder
- innate preferences are building blocks to learn about morality/society
What was the “punishment” follow-up study to the “helper” and “hinderer” study? Age of participants? Methods? Results? What does this tell us?
20 months
would the infant give the “preferred toy” to the prosocial or antisocial puppet?
-mostly gave the preferred toy to the prosocial puppet
- mostly gave the unpreferred toy or nothing to the antisocial puppet (punishing)
Infants engage in punishing antisocial behaviour
Prosocial behaviours are rooted in the capacity to feel what two things?
empathy and sympathy
What is the difference between empathy and sympathy?
Empathy: an emotional response that reflects another person’s state or condition (understanding and sharing someone else’s emotions)
“I feel your pain”
Sympathy: feeling of concern for another person in response to their emotional state or condition
* experiencing sympathy does not mean merely feeling the same emotion
“I’m sorry that you’re in pain”
When do infants begin to exhibit prosocial behaviours? Do they show empathy or sympathy first? At what ages do we see these behaviours?
empathy seems to exist before 14 mos and then they start showing sympathy (concern rather than simply mirroring response)
18-25 mos - try to share objects to try to comfort others or try to get caregiver to try to comfort the other
18 months: help altruistically and cooperate - try to help strangers altruistically (no benefit to themselves)
3-year-olds: less likely to help those who previously harmed someone and who attempted harm than those who previously helped or accidentally caused harm
What three things can parents do to socialize prosocial behaviour in their children?
Modeling and teaching prosocial behaviors
Arranging opportunities for children to engage in prosocial behavior (e.g., household chores that benefit more than just themselves - increases competence)
Disciplining and eliciting prosocial behaviors
(supportive > sympathy > prosocial)
What will happen if a child is only ever disciplined or awarded for using prosocial behaviours (without support and sympathy)?
If they are only ever disciplined for not using prosocial behaviours they will start to believe the only reason to behave this way is to avoid punishment - vice versa for only behaving prosocially for rewards
What are the two types of aggression (antisocial behaviour)? What is the difference between the two?
instrumental aggression (goal-based, intentional, planned)
relational aggression (damage relationships)
When do we typically see infants/children engaging in antisocial behaviours? Ages? Types of aggression? Reasons for aggression?
18 months – 2/3 years: physical aggression (hitting, pushing) particularly over objects (instrumental aggression)
3 years+: physical aggression decreases, verbal aggression increases (e.g., taunting)
(relational aggression)
What is the take-home message about prosocial/antisocial behaviours in children? From infancy, children do what three things?
differentiate between prosocial and antisocial others
engage in prosocial behaviors (altruistic helping, comforting, cooperating) – though not with others with an antisocial history
engage in antisocial behaviors
instrumental aggression (physical conflicts over objects) 🡪
relational aggression (exclusion, taunting)
Re development of fairness and sharing: What is the difference between judgments and actions (decisions)?
Judgments: 3rd party - observing others having an interaction
Actions/Decisions: 1st person - deciding whether something they are involved in is fair for them/others in the situation
At what age do children know the right thing to do is to share equally? What are the caveats to this in first-person tasks? What does this tell us?
3-year-olds: know the right thing to do is share equally
- …but do not share equally
- … and know they would not share equally
-they know they should but they don’t
-they understand their own intentions about not sharing equally
At what age do children reject allocations that put them at a disadvantage? What is this called?
At what age do children reject allocations that put them at an advantage? What is this called?
4-year-olds: reject allocations that put self at a disadvantage
(disadvantageous inequity)
8-year-old: reject allocations that put self at an advantage
(advantageous inequity)
What is the disadvantageous/advantageous inequity experiment? Methods? Results?
experiment where one child makes a decision about distribution and then other child can either agree to it or get rid of the whole thing (nobody gets anything) -
Results:
at 4 years old they will get rid of the whole thing if they are put at a disadvantage
at age 8 they start rejecting themselves as being at an advantage - will flip the whole thing if they are put at an advantage
What question did Sloane et al (2012) address (generally and specifically) in the two experiments? Ages?
General: Do infants expect others to be fair?
Specifically:
Do infants (19mo) expect others to share resources equally?
Do infants (21-mo) expect others to reward others based on effort?
Sloane et al (fairness) experiment #1:
Age?
Methods?
Conditions?
Why was each control condition used?
19-mos
Methods: Two toy ducks, two edible cookies, and two toy cars were distributed in the three pairs of trials to two giraffes.
3 conditions:
Experimental condition - animate giraffes:
(equal, unequal) - toy cars/toy ducks/edible cookies
Inanimate control condition:
(equal, unequal) similar except that the giraffes were inanimate: they did not move or talk and simply faced forward
Cover control condition:
(equal, unequal) similar to experimental condition except that objects were not given, they were revealed from under a cover
Inanimate control used to rule out the possibility that infants prefer symmetrical displays
Cover control used to rule out the possibility that infants expect similar individuals to have similar numbers
What were the results of Sloane et al - Experiment #1? What three conclusions can we make?
Experimental condition - looked longer for unequal distribution
Inanimate - approx equal looking time
Cover - aaprox equal looking time
Conclusions:
Infants expect resources to be equally distributed to animate beings
Infants don’t expect resources to be distributed equally to inanimate objects
Infants don’t just expect similar individuals to have similar amounts of items
Sloane et al (fairness) experiment #2:
Age?
Methods?
Conditions?
21 months (b/c linguistically demanding task)
Do infants expect people to consider effort when distributing rewards?
Infants see either:
1 works = worker & slacker
both works = both put away toys
All infants see both individuals (worker and slacker) get a resource
3 conditions:
1. Experimental (explicit)
(told about the reward) “It’s time to clean up the toys. If you put the toys away, you can have a sticker.”
- Implicit (not told about rewards)
- Control
(½ = all opaque;
½ = opaque exp window for infants/not experimenter)
same as explicit = told about rewards
sometimes rewarder couldn’t see contents of the boxes
What were the results of Sloane et al - Experiment #2? What conclusion can we make?
Infants looked longer at one-works event in both explicit and implicit conditions. (surprised when the worker & slacker were rewarded equally)
Infants looked approximately equally in the control condition (opaque)
Conclusion:
Infants expect individuals to be rewarded according to their efforts
(but only when their efforts are known to the distributor)
What is the overall take-home message from the Sloane experiments?
Infants have expectations about fairness that are context specific
Early-emerging concern for fairness
How are sociodramatic play and object substitution different from each other?
sociodramatic play is more complex
When 14 month olds are observing/learning from others, what two things do they expect others to be?
rational and efficient
What is the appraisal process of the functionalist perspective (3 steps)? What level does this happen at?
goal connected with emotion (Avoid contamination/illness)
meaning regarding self (This stimulus may make me ill)
action tendency (Reject stimulus)
the appraisal process happens at a subconscious level but emotions are goal driven
