test 2 review Flashcards
the job of arteries is to transport ? blood ? ? the heart
oxygenated, away from
arteries branch into ? which control blood ? and ? thru the body
arterioles, flow, pressure
veins carry ? blood ? the heart
deoxygenated, toward
? are tiny blood vessels with thin walls, primarily functioning to exchange nutrients, ?, and ? products between the bloodstream and surrounding tissues by allowing substances to diffuse through their single layer of endothelial cells
capillaries, oxygen, wastes
? arteries are
Act as ? reservoirs by expanding during systole and recoiling during diastole. w/o pressure smoothing effects of elastic arteries, walls of arteries throughout body would experience higher ?
elastic, pressure, BP
? Arteries
Also called distributing arteries because they deliver blood to body organs
Account for most of named arteries
Have thickest tunica ? with more smooth muscle
Active in ? and ? to shunt blood to most needed areas
muscular, media, vasoconstriction, vasodilation
The ? system functions primarily to drain excess fluid from ? throughout the body, returning it to the bloodstream, while also playing a crucial role in the ? system by filtering out harmful substances and producing WBC’s to fight infection
lymphatic, tissues, immune
Tunica ?
? layer that is in “intimate” contact with blood
Contains endothelium, simple squamous epithelium, which lines lumen of all vessels and is continuous with endocardium
Tunica intima is flat and slick surface to reduce ?
intima, innermost, friction
Tunica ?
middle layer composed mostly of circular smooth muscle and sheets of elastic CT
Sympathetic vasomotor nerve fibers innervate smooth muscle of tunica media controlling ? or ?.
maintains BP and circulation
↑ Sympathetic stimulation ↑ constriction (vasoconstriction)
↓ Sympathetic stimulation ↓ constriction and BV dilates (vasodilation)
media, vasoconstriction, vasodilation
Tunica ?
outer layer of wall
Also called tunica ?
Composed mostly of loose collagen fibers that ? and reinforce BV wall
Tunica externa infiltrated with
1. Sympathetic Nerve fibers
2. Lymphatic vessels
3. Elastic CT
4. Vasa ? = BVs to nourish BV wall; system of tiny blood vessels to nourish outermost external layer of BV wall; whereas, the lumen of BV obtains nutrients directly from blood in lumen
externa, adventitia, protect, vasorum
? capillaries are most common
Abundant in ?, muscles, lungs, and ?
Least permeable but have intercellular ? to ↑ permeability
these capillaries in the brain form the blood brain barrier because they lack intercellular clefts and are totally enclosed with continuous tight junctions
continuous, skin, CNS, clefts
? capillaries
Have large fenestrations or pores that ↑ permeability
Fenestrations plus intercellular clefts ↑ permeability
Found in areas involved in filtration as in the ?, absorption as in ?, and in endocrine tissue for hormone ?
Fenestrations are “Swiss cheese-like holes” that tunnel through endothelial cells for ↑ permeability
fenestrated, kidneys, intestines, secretion
? capillaries
Most ? and occur in limited locations
Found only in the liver, bone marrow, and ?
these capillaries have large intercellular clefts, fenestrations, few tight junctions, and
larger lumens. These characteristics allow large molecules and cells (RBCs, WBCs, Platelets) to
pass across wall
In the Liver and Spleen, Sinusoidal capillaries are lined with ? to capture and
destroy foreign invaders
sinusoidal, permeable, spleen, macrophages
? venules drain blood from the capillaries and allow for diffusion of nutrients to the tissues
postcapillary
? are blood reservoirs that return blood toward the heart
Veins form when ? converge and BVs have all three tunics
Veins have
1. Thinner walls than arteries
2. Larger lumens than arteries
3. Lower BP than arteries
Veins are called Capacitance Vessels or Blood Reservoirs
Their large lumen makes veins good storage vessels
Veins have
Lower ? than in arteries
The large-diameter lumens offer little resistance; ↑ lumen diameter ↓ resistance
Veins have structural adaptation to ensure blood returns to heart at the same rate that the
blood is pumped out of heart
Veins have ? that prevent ? of blood and compensate for low venous BP
Venous valves are most abundant in veins of ? and absent in thoracic / ? veins
veins, venules, BP, valves, backflow, limbs, abdominal
What are examples of Venous Sinuses?
1. ? sinus of the heart
2. Dural sinuses of the brain
What are characteristics of Venous Sinuses?
? veins with extremely ? walls
Composed only of ?
Supported by ? that surround them rather than additional tunics
Dural Venous Sinuses are supported by dura mater and receive CSF
coronary, flattened, thin, endothelium, tissues
What is Blood flow?
? of blood flowing through a ? or an ?
Blood flow is the entire circulation in given period measured in ml/min
Blood flow under resting conditions is relatively constant. Blood flow (does/does not) vary based on needs
volume, vessel, organ, does
What is Blood Pressure (BP)?
BP = ? of blood exerted on wall of BV
BP is Ventricular ? pressure/Ventricular ? pressure
1. Normal BP of adult = ?
2. BP newborn baby = ?
3. Hypertension = ?
force, systolic, diastolic, 120/80, 90/55, 140/90
What is Resistance?
? to blood flow
Measurement of the amount of ? blood encounters in BV
Most friction is encountered in systemic circulation, we call peripheral Resistance
Three important Sources of Resistance
1. Blood ?
2. Total blood vessel ?
3. Blood vessel ?
opposition, friction, viscosity, length, diameter
What is Blood Viscosity?
? or “?” of blood due to formed elements and plasma proteins
Blood is more viscous than water, so blood flows ? than H₂O under same conditions
thickness, stickiness, slower
How does Blood Viscosity Affect Resistance?
↑ Blood Viscosity ↑Resistance: ? for molecules to be able to slide past each other and more difficult to keep blood moving (Think milkshake vs. water)
↑ Blood Viscosity ↑ Resistance ↓ ? ?
? = ↑ viscosity ↑ resistance ↓ blood flow
↓ RBC count = ? ↓ viscosity ↓ resistance ↑ blood flow
harder, blood flow, polycythemia, anemia
How does Blood Vessel Length Effect Resistance?
Longer the blood vessel length, more ? encountered, greater the ? encountered
↑ BV length ↑ Resistance ↓ Blood Flow (easier to drink through a shorter straw)
Infant’s BV lengthen as grow into adulthood so R and BP increases
Why does BP ↑ with age? ↑ BV length, ↑ R, ↑ BP
Why does obesity ↑ BP? ↑ ? ? to service adipose tissue ↑ R, ↑ BP
friction, resistance, BV length
How does Blood Vessel Lumen Diameter Effect Resistance?
Blood vessel diameter has greatest influence on resistance
1. Constrict BV… ? Resistance
2. Dilate BV… ? Resistance (That’s why a wider straw is easier to drink from)
increased, decreased
Fluid close to BV wall is slowed by ? and blood moves more slowly along the wall than in
middle of tube
Fluid in center of the BV lumen does not encounter ? of the BV wall and moves
freely and ?. This is called ? flow.
The smaller the tube diameter, the greater the friction and the greater the ?
friction, friction, faster, laminar, resistance
? fluid motion where blood in middle of BV mixes with blood flowing along edge of BV is called ? flow
What causes it?
1. ↓ in blood vessel diameter (?)
2. ↑ Obstacles = fatty plaques = ?
3. ↑ Turbulent flow ↑ Resistance
irregular, turbulent, vasoconstriction, atherosclerosis
? pressure is the Pressure exerted in aorta during ventricular contraction
Left ventricle pumps blood into aorta, stretches aorta and averages 120 mm Hg in normal adult
systolic
? pressure is the Lowest level of aortic pressure during ventricular diastole
Heart is at rest and aortic pressure 70-80 mm Hg
Diastolic
What is Pulse Pressure?
Difference between ? pressure and ? pressure
Pulse Pressure: 120 - 80 = 40
systolic, diastolic
What is Mean Arterial Pressure = MAP?
?? that propels blood through circulation and to ?
MAP = Diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure
BP = 120/80
Pulse Pressure = 120 − 80 = 40
So MAP = ??
BP, tissues, 93
What are Vital Signs?
?, ??, Respiratory rate, Body ?
? pulse is most routinely used (taken at the wrist)
pulse, BP, temp, radial
Pulse Points = body sites where the pulse is most easily ? include
1. Superficial Temporal A.
2. Facial A.
3. Common carotid A.
4. Brachial A.
5. Femoral A.
6. Popliteal A.
7. Posterior Tibial A.
8. Dorsalis pedis A.
Pulse Points also called ? Points because they can be compressed to stop blood flow in
the event of ?
Most often measure systemic BP Indirectly on Brachial Artery by auscultatory methods using
a Sphygmomanometer (120/80 mmHg)
palpated, pressure, hemorrhaging
Capillary blood pressure (CBP) is the force that pushes fluid out of ? and into surrounding ?
ranges from 35 mm Hg at beginning of capillary bed to ∼17 mm Hg
at the end of the bed
Why is Low capillary pressure desirable?
1. High BP would ? fragile, thin-walled capillaries
2. Most capillaries are very permeable, so low pressure is enough to force filtrate into interstitial spaces
3. Lower BP facilitates reabsorption on the venule end of capillary bed
capillaries, tissues, rupture
? blood pressure is the pressure in the veins or atria of the heart
Venous Blood Pressure is steady; changes little during cardiac cycle
Pressure gradient from venules to venae cavae is ~15 mm Hg
If vein is cut, low ?? of venous system causes blood to flow out smoothly
If artery cut, blood ? out because BP is higher
Low Venous BP requires adaptations to help venous blood to return to the heart
Factors Aiding Venous Return of blood to heart
1. ? pump
2. ? pump
3. Sympathetic venoconstriction
venous, BP, squirts, muscular, respiratory
? pump
Contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles ; “milks” blood back toward heart
Valves prevent ? while muscles are relaxed
muscular, backflow
? pump
Pressure changes occur during ? and it moves blood towards heart
As we Inhale:
Abdominal pressure ? and squeezes veins forcing blood toward heart
Thoracic pressure ? allowing thoracic veins to expand and speed blood to right atrium
respiratory, breathing, increase, decrease
? ?
As smooth muscle around veins constrict during sympathetic control, this ↓ lumen radius in
veins and pushes blood toward heart (valves prevent backflow)
sympathetic venoconstriction
Neural Controls alter BP by changing ?
Hormones alter BP by changing ?
Kidneys alter BP by changing ? ?
resistance, resistance, BV
? monitor BP
? are stretch receptors = ? sensitive ?
baroreceptors (2x) , pressure, mechanoreceptors
Baroreceptors Reflexes
When BP ?, baroreceptors stretched
Baroreceptors send nervous input to cardiovascular Center
Inhibits vasomotor center (inhibits sympathetic neurons and BV dilate)
Inhibits ? centers
Stimulates ? center (↓HR)
Results in ↓HR, vasodilation, and ↓ BP
increases, cardioacceleratory, cardioinhibitory
Chemoreceptors are located in carotid bodies and aortic bodies and monitor
1. ? levels
2. ? concentration (pH)
3. ? levels
CO2, H+, O2
Hormones regulate blood ? in short term via changes in peripheral resistance
Hormones regulate BP in long term via changes in blood ?
Short-Term Regulation of BP: Hormonal Controls
1. During periods of ?
Adrenal medulla secretes E/NE which ↑ CO, ↑ vasoconstriction → ↑BP
2. when bp is low or bv is low it secretes angiotensin II and ?
3. when bp is high or bv is high it secretes ?
BP, Blood Volume, stress, ADH, ANP
Kidneys regulate arterial BP by
1. ? renal mechanism alters blood volume ? of hormones
2. ? renal mechanism alters blood volume ?of hormones
direct, independant, indirect, dependant
Know pathway
Angiotensinogen + Renin → Angiotensin ?
Angiotensin I + ACE → Angiotensin ?
I, II
If BP to brain is too low
Perfusion is inadequate and person loses ?
If BP to brain is too high, person could have ?
consciousness, stroke
Transient ↑ in BP occur as normal adaptations during
1. Changes in ?
2. Physical ?
3. Emotional ?
4. ?
posture, exertion, upset, fever
What else may also cause BP to vary?
1. ? = BP↑ with age
2. ? = Females have higher BP
3. ? = BP↑ with ↑weight
4. ? = black, white, etc.
5. Mood BP↑ when emotional
6. Posture BP↑ when stand
Age, sex, weight, race
? is the Chronically elevated arterial pressure at or above ? mm Hg
90% of hypertensive conditions are primary hypertension or essential hypertension where no
underlying cause can be identified
Risk factors to Primary Hypertension
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?= adipocytes release hormones that ↑ sympathetic tone ↑ BP
4. ?
5. Diabetes mellitus
6. ?
7. Smoking = nicotine vasoconstriction and causes release of E/NE; chemicals in smoke
damage tunica intima
Drugs used for Primary Hypertension
1. Diuretics
2. ?-blockers
3. Calcium channel blockers
4. ACE inhibitors
5. Angiotensin II receptor blockers
hypertension, 140/90, hereditary, diet, obesity, age, stress, beta
?
Low BP below ? mm Hg
Usually not a concern unless it causes inadequate blood flow to tissues
Low BP is often associated with long life and lack of cardiovascular illness
? hypotension is an important sign of circulatory shock
Circulatory shock is a condition where blood vessels ? fill and blood cannot ? normally. Blood flow is inadequate to meet tissue needs. If Circulatory shock persist,
cells die and ? are damaged.
hypotension, 90/60, acute, inadequately, circulate, organs
? shock
Results from large-scale ? ? or fluid loss from acute ?, ? or diarrhea or
extensive ?
When BV drops; HR ↑: Quickly replace fluids
hypovolemic, blood loss, hemorrhage, vomiting, burns
? shock
Blood volume is normal but there is extreme ? with decreased peripheral resistance and rapidly falling ?
vascular, vasodilation, BP
? ? is the Blood flow through body tissues or capillary beds
tissue perfusion
4 types of Vascular Shock
1. ? shock (massive release of histamine and vasodilation)
2. ? shock (failure of ANS causes vasodilation)
3. ? shock (bacterial infection; bacteria release toxins which are potent vasodilators)
4. ? shock = “pump failure”
Heart pumping is so inefficient it cannot sustain adequate circulation due to myocardial damage
anaphylactic, neurogenic, septic, cardiogenic
What determines blood flow through the tissues or tissue perfusion?
1. ? Controls = control from within, uses paracrines or properties of smooth muscle
2. ? Controls = control from the outside, uses nerves and hormones
intrinsic, extrinsic
(intrinsic/extrinsic) control involves ? nervous system / hormones to control blood flow through whole body to maintain BP and ↓ blood flow to regions that need it least
this control redistributes blood during exercise and ?
extrinsic, sympathetic, thermoregulation
(intrinsic/extrinsic) Controls act automatically on smooth muscle of arterioles that feed a capillary bed
these controls use ? (chemical) and ? (physical) controls
intrinsic, metabolic, myogenic
? ? (NO) is released, NO is powerful vasodilator resulting in
Vasodilation and ↑ blood flow to tissues
? (released by endothelial cells) are potent ?
NO and endothelins are usually balanced but when blood flow is inadequate, NO wins control,
causing ?.
? can also cause vasodilation as a defense mechanism to
clear tissues of microbes and toxins
nitric oxide, endothelins, vasoconstrictors, vasodilation, histamine
myogenic control is the ability of blood vessels to automatically adjust their ? in response to changes in ?
diameter, BP
? is a process that occurs in many biological systems, where an internal mechanism adjusts the system’s response to ?
autoregulation, stimuli
in ? muscles, Blood flow ? with activity. Blood Flow can increase 10 times with intense exercise
in the ?, Blood flow to brain must be ? because neurons are intolerant of ischemia and brain is unable to store nutrients
skeletal, varies, brain, constant
? puts you in a coma
very high CO₂ levels ? brain activity
BP less than 60mmHg systemic = syncope = ?
BP greater than 160 mm Hg systemic = cerebral ?
Acidosis, depress, fainting, edema
Skin:
As temperature ? (from heat exposure, fever, vigorous exercise), the hypothalamic
temperature center reduces vasomotor stimulation of skin blood vessels causing ?.
Warm blood flushes into capillary beds in dermis and heat radiates from skin
As temperature ? (cold ambient temperatures), hypothalamic temperature center
↑ vasomotor stimulation of skin blood vessels causing ?.
Warm blood shunted away from skin to deeper vital organs
increases, vasodilation, decreases, vasoconstriction
Lungs:
Autoregulatory mechanisms are opposite
↓ O₂ levels in one area of the lung cause ?
↑ O₂ levels in one area of the lung promote ?
Allows blood flow to O₂ rich areas of lung
vasoconstriction, vasodilation
Velocity changes as blood travels through systemic circulation
1. Fastest in ?
2. Slowest in ?
3. Then increases again in ?
aorta, capillaries, veins
Many molecules pass by diffusion between blood and interstitial fluid. Molecules move down
their concentration gradients by ?transport
passive
?-? Pressure Interactions occurs when substances are forced out of capillaries at arterial end of capillary bed by hydrostatic pressure ; BP
Substances returns to capillaries at venous end by ? pressure
hydrostatic osmotic, osmotic
? pressure is the same as capillary BP
BP forces substances through capillary walls by ?
BP is greater at ? end (35 mm Hg) of bed than at venule end (17 mm Hg)
hydrostatic, filtration, arterial
? ? pressure is the force pulling fluid back into the capillaries by osmosis
This “sucking” pressure is the osmotic gradient in BV created by ? and plasma proteins pulling substances back into capillary (reabsorption) by ?
capillary osmotic, albumins, osmosis
? refers to the process where fluid and small dissolved particles are forced through a ? membrane, separating them from larger molecules and cells
filtration, semipermeable
? is the process by which the body reclaims water and solutes from the tubular fluid and returns them to the bloodstream
reabsorption
? is the net movement of solvent (typically water) molecules across a semipermeable membrane from a region of ? solute concentration to a region of ? solute concentration
osmosis, lower, higher
causes of edema:
incompetent ? valves
blockage of ??
???
high BV and ??
pregnancy
? (low plasma proteins)
inflammation
Malnutrition deficiency of AAs
Liver disease ↓ albumins (alcoholism)
Glomerulonephritis (loss of plasma proteins from kidneys)
Edema also can be caused by blocked ? vessels and is visible in skin
venous, BV, Congestive heart failure, BP, Hypoproteinemia, lymphatic
? ? are an elaborate network of drainage vessels
lymphatic vessels
? is Interstitial fluid, IF, (tissue fluid) plus any leaked proteins in the lymphatic capillary
Excess tissue fluid must be recovered daily to ensure the cardiovascular system has sufficient
blood volume to maintain ? and to prevent ?
lymph, circulation, edema
Lymphatic ? are tiny, thin-walled vessels with a blind-ended structure, located within ? throughout the body, that function to collect ? interstitial fluid (lymph) from the surrounding tissues and transport it into larger lymphatic ?
capillaries, tissues, excess, vessels
A lymphatic ? is a large lymphatic vessel that functions to drain lymph fluid from the body’s tissues back into the ?, primarily by emptying into the ? veins
duct, bloodstream, subclavian
lymph ? initiate an ? response to an ? by a pathogen.
nodes, immune, infection
Pathway of Lymph
1. Lymphatic ?
2. Lymphatic vessels
3. Lymphatic ?
4. Lymphatic ?
capillaries, trunks, ducts
In the lymphatic system, ? cells and fibers provide ? support and a framework for immune cells
reticular, structural
? ? tissue is a loose arrangement of lymphoid cells and some reticular fibers
Found in virtually every body organ
Larger collections of diffuse lymphoid tissue in lamina propria of mucous membranes
diffuse lymphoid
Lymphoid ? are Solid, spherical bodies consisting of
Tightly packed lymphoid cells: ? cells, ? cells, macrophages
these are found in
1. Lymph ?
2. Tonsils
3. Appendix
4. ? patches
follicles, B, T, nodes, Peyer’s
In the lymphatic system, B cells are primarily responsible for producing ? to fight ? by binding to them, while T cells directly destroy ? cells or cancer cells
antibodies, pathogens, infected
? cells function as the primary ?-producing cells playing a crucial role in ? immunity by secreting large quantities of aantibodies to target and neutralize specific ? or antigens encountered in the body
plasma, antibody, humoral, pathogens
? lymphoid organs are areas where T and B cells mature
1. B cells mature in Red Bone Marrow
2. T cells mature in ?
? lymphoid organs are where
mature lymphocytes, B cells and T cells, first encounter their antigen, and B cells and T cells
become activated
primary, thymus, secondary
In the lymphatic system, ? ? are primarily responsible for cleaning lymph, blood, saliva, and intestinal juice by filtering out harmful substances like ?, ?, and damaged cells as the fluid passes through them
lymph nodes, bacteria, viruses
Lymph nodes can become secondary ? sites if ? cancer cells are trapped in lymph node
Cancer-infiltrated lymph nodes are ? but usually not painful
cancer, metastasizing, swollen
The spleen is a primary lymphatic organ that filters ?, ? blood cells, and produces ?
blood, stores, WBC’s
the function of the ? is to protect the body from ?, ? and other potentially harmful substances that enter the pharynx
tonsils, pathogens, germs
The ? functions as a key part of the lymphatic system by acting as a reservoir for beneficial gut ?, supporting intestinal immunity through its rich lymphoid tissue, and potentially helping to replenish healthy gut flora after an infection or antibiotic use
appendix, bacteria
the job of ? patch is to ? and ? bacteria from breaching intestinal wall into peritoneal cavity
To generate ? cells for future exposure to pathogens
peyer’s, destroy, prevent, memory
The ? is unique within the lymphatic system because it primarily functions to mature and develop T lymphocytes
thymus
two intrinsic systems
1. ? (nonspecific response to antigens) defense system (born with)
2. ? (specific response to antigens) defense system (has to develop)
innate, adaptive
First line of defense is barriers such as external body membranes
1. ?
2. Mucosae or ? membranes
skin, mucous
Second line of defense = internal defense (innate)
1. Antimicrobial proteins
a. Interferon
b. Complement proteins
2. ? = macrophages/neutrophils
3. ?
4. ?
5. Natural killer cells = non-specific lymphocytes
phagocytes, inflammation, fever
Third line of defense = ? (specific) defense system (has to develop) ; Attacks specific foreign substances, and takes longer to react than innate
1. ? cells (plasma cells produce specific antibodies)
2. ? cells
adaptive, B, T
Immune system is a ? system rather than ? system and consist of a collection of
1. ? Cells
2. ? chemicals
3. Other molecules
functional, organ, immune, antimicrobial
What are our Innate Defenses?
1. ? barriers
2. ?
3. ?
We are born with
mechanical, cells, chemicals
Innate system uses the
? and/or ? lines of defense to prevent entrance and/or spread of pathogens
? = disease-causing microorganisms
1st, 2nd, pathogens
? of skin and mucous secretions inhibits growth of pathogens
Skin, vagina, and stomach secretions are acidic and are called the ? ?
acidity, acid mantle
? kills many microorganisms. it is found in saliva, respiratory mucus, and lacrimal fluid
? Enzymes in stomach kill many microorganisms
lysozyme, digestive
? membranes produce thick, sticky mucus
these membranes line digestive and respiratory tracts where mucus traps microorganisms
? secreted from skin and mucosae are broad spectrum antimicrobial proteins that increase inflammatory response and inhibit bacterial and fungal growth
Skin produces ? in sebum that slows movement of pathogens
? system has modifications to stop pathogens. Mucus-coated hairs along respiratory tract trap inhaled particles and cilia sweep bacteria-laden mucus to pharynx
mucous, defensins, lipids, respiratory
If surface barriers breached by cuts,
Second line of defense comes into play to protect deeper ?
Second Line of Defense consist of cells and chemicals
1. ? (macrophages and neutrophils) carry out phagocytosis
2. Natural killer (NK) cells
3. Inflammatory response (WBCs, mast cells, and inflammatory chemicals)
4. ? proteins (interferons and complement proteins)
5. ?
phagocytes, antimicrobial, fever
One type of nonspecialized receptor is called TLRs or ?-? ?
Toll-like receptors
?
Most abundant phagocytes but die fighting pathogens
?
Develop from monocytes
Chief phagocytic cells because it is the most robust phagocytic cell and can live for months or years
neutrophils, macrophages
Two types of Macrophages
1. ? macrophages
Wander through tissue spaces
Example: Alveolar macrophages move from one alveolus to next alveolus
- ? macrophages
Permanent residents of some organs
Examples: Stellate macrophages (liver), Microglia (brain)
free, fixed
What is Phagocytosis?
Process starts when phagocyte recognizes and ? pathogen
What may hinder Phagocytosis?
Some microorganisms have external capsules that ? ?, helping pathogen to evade binding and phagocytosis. Immune system penetrates microbe’s external capsule with opsonins
engulf, hide antigens
What are the events in Phagocytosis?
1. Phagocyte adheres to ? with TLR and binds to pathogen’s antigen
2. Cytoplasmic extensions bind to and engulf pathogen forming a vesicle called a ?
3. Phagosome fuses with lysosome forming ?
4. Lysosomal enzymes destroy ?
pathogen, lysosome, phagolysosome, pathogens
Neutrophil and macrophages release toxic chemicals into ECF creating a killing field called a ? ?
Respiratory Burst Release
1. Highly destructive free radicals
2. ? ? (H₂O₂)
3. ? sodium hypochlorite
respiratory burst, hydrogen peroxide, bleach
Natural Killer Cells
Are non-phagocytic cells
Are non-specific ?
Constantly carry out immune surveillance and bind to target cells (cancer or infected cells) that lack “self-markers” or MHC markers (proteins)
Natural Killer Cells can kill
1. ? cells
2. ? cells (virus infected cells)
lymphocyte, cancer, infected
Inflammation is a ? Tissue Response to Injury
Inflammation triggered whenever body tissues injured by ?, ?, irritating ?, infections by microorganisms
Inflammation is a local response to tissue injury
Functions of inflammation
1. Prevents ? of damaging agents
2. Disposes of cell debris and ?
3. Alerts adaptive immune system
4. Sets the stage for repair
localized, trauma, heat, chemicals, spread, pathogens
Stages of inflammation
1. Inflammatory ? release
2. Vasodilation and ↑ vascular ?
3. ?mobilization
chemical, permeability, phagocyte
Four cardinal signs of acute inflammation
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?
4. ?
Sometimes a fifth sign, ? of function, seen if movement or use of area is hampered
redness, heat, swelling, pain, impairment
Examples of Inflammatory chemicals
1. ?
2. ?
3. Certain Cytokines (interleukins, TNFs = tumor necrosis factors)
4. Complement proteins
histamine, Prostaglandins
Stage I. Inflammatory chemicals released into ECF by
1. Injured ?
2. ? cells = macrophages, neutrophils
3. ? and mast cells
tissues, immune, basophils
Stage II. What does Vasodilation and ↑ vascular permeability accomplish?
Vasodilation causes ? (increased blood flow) that leads to redness and ?
Increased capillary permeability causes ? factors, ?, plasma to leak into tissue causing swelling (?). Swelling also pushes on nerve endings, resulting in ?.
hyperemia, heat, clotting, antibodies, edema, pain
Benefits of Edema
1. ? of IF forces foreign material into lymphatic ? for processing in lymph nodes
2. Delivers complement to area
3. Delivers ? proteins that form fibrin mesh that acts as scaffold for repair of tissues
4. Mesh also isolates injured area so pathogens cannot ? to more tissue
increase, capillaries, clotting, spread
Stage III. Phagocyte mobilization
? flood area first
? follow
Complement protein activated
Adaptive immunity occurs when the, ? cells and ? cells arrive
neutrophils, macrophages, B/T
? is the movement of an cell or organism in response to a ? stimulus.
chemotaxis, chemical
What is Pus?
Creamy yellow mixture of dead ?, dead ? cells, living or dead ?
neutrophils, tissue, pathogens
? proteins enhance innate defense by inhibiting microorganisms’ ability to ? or attacking microorganisms directly
antimicrobial, reproduce
What are the MOST important Antimicrobial Proteins?
1. ?
2. ? Proteins
interferons, complement
? are proteins that help the body’s immune system fight ?, cancers, and ? diseases
Interferons (IFNs), infections, autoimmune
Complement System Activated by Three Different Pathways
1. ? pathway
2. ? pathway
3. ? pathway
classical, lectin, alternative
? Pathway
? bind to microbe’s surface membrane
Then complement binds to antibodies activating complement proteins
This double binding called ? fixation
? Pathway
Lectins bind to microbe
Complement proteins bind to Lectins activating complement proteins
? Pathway activates Complement spontaneously
Complement Fixation enhances
1. ?
2. ?
3. MAC and cell lysis
classical, antibodies, complement, lectin, alternative, inflammation, phagocytosis
What is Cell Lysis?
Called ? ? complex (MAC) = “mac attack”
Complement proteins form ? in plasma membrane of microbe causing lysis of microbe
membrane attack, holes
Fever = ? response to ?
What is Fever?
Abnormally high ? ?
Fever is a systemic response to invading microbes
? and macrophages exposed to foreign substances secrete pyrogens
? (proteins) act on temperature center in ? and reset temperature receptors to a higher set point; raising body temperature and hence the fever
How is fever beneficial?
Causes liver and spleen to sequester ? and zinc (needed by microbes for growth)
Increases ? rate
Increases ? of repair
Makes you feel bad so you have to rest
systemic, infections, body temp, leukocytes, pyrogens, hypothalamus, iron, metabolic, rate
? are substances that cause fever by stimulating the release of inflammatory cytokines
pyrogens
? is a passive immune tolerance that occurs when antigens are located ? anatomic or physiologic barriers
this word means to ?
sequestration, behind, isolate
? immunity is carried out by ? cells the body’s immune response to pathogens in bodily fluids, or humors, that uses antibodies and other molecules to protect the body
humoral, B
?-mediated immunity is a mechanism of the adaptive immune system that occurs when the body detects foreign material, or ? in the bloodstream
antibody, antigens
? Immunity is when ? T cells act against target cells (infected cells) by directly killing infected cells
? T cells act against target cells indirectly by releasing macrophages that enhance inflammatory response, ?, stimulates cloning of B cells and T cells
Cellular Immunity has cellular targets = infected cells
Kills pathogen after pathogen is in your cell
Kills pathogen by killing your infected cell
cellular, cytotoxic, helper, chemicals
Cellular Immunity Tc directly kill
1. ? infected cells
2. ? infected cells
3. ? infected cells
4. ? infected cells
5. Protozoa infected cells
6. Cancer cells
7. Tissue transplanted cells
virus, bacterial, fungal, parasite
The adaptive immune system is typified by the following four characteristics: ?, ?, ?, and ? of self/nonself
specificity, diversity, memory, discernment
? ? are the antigens come from outside the body and are recognized by the immune system as harmful.
? ? are the antigens are produced within the body’s own cells
foreign antigens, self antigens
Complete Foreign Antigens have two important functional properties
1. ? = its antigen has ability to stimulate proliferation of specific lymphocytes
2. ? = its antigen has ability to react with lymphocytes’ and antibodies’ receptor sites
Immunogenicity, reactivity
An ? antigen, also known as a ?, is a molecule that can’t trigger an immune response on its own, but can react with the products of an immune response, like ?
incomplete, hapten, antibodies
MHC I proteins present to ?; MHC I proteins located on all ? and ? cells
MHC II proteins present to ?; MCH II proteins located on ?, ? and ? cells
Tc, body, dendritic, Th, macrophages, dendritic, B
T and B lymphocytes share common development and steps in their life cycles
1. ?
2. ?
3. Seeding secondary lymphoid organs and circulation
4. Antigen encounter and ?
5. ? and differentiation
Origin
Like all blood cells, lymphocytes originate in ? Bone Marrow
Maturation = Become ?
Lymphocytes mature or gain their “specific antigen receptor” in primary lymphoid organs
1. Red Bone Marrow = B cells
2. Thymus = T cell
origin, maturation, activation, proliferation, red, Immunocompetent
antigen presenting cells have MHC ? proteins and present to ?
II, CD4+ T helper cells
B cells are responsible for ? production and ? immunity
antibody, humoral
T cells are involved in ? immunity, with helper T cells and ? T cells
cellular, cytotoxic
clonal selection leads to the ? of specific ? cells
proliferation, B
activated B cells differentiate into ? ? which produce ? and ? cells which provide long term immunity
plasma cells, antibodies, memory
the ? immune response occurs upon 1st exposure to an ?, resulting in a slower and ? response
primary, antigen, weaker
the ? immune response occurs upon subsequent exposures resulting in a faster and ? response due to ? cells
secondary, stronger, memory
(active/passive) immunity occurs when the immune system produces ? in response to an ? (i.e. infection, vaccination)
active, antibodies, antigen
? stimulate the immune system to develop active immunity against specific ? and they often contain ? or inactivated parts of the pathogen (antigens)
vaccines, pathogens, weakened
the 5 main classes of antibodies are:
1. Ig?
2. Ig?
3. Ig?
4. Ig?
5. Ig?
- IgM
- IgA
- IgD
- IgG
- IgE
(MADGE)
? immunity involves T cells targeting infected or ? cells ; It plays a crucial role in eliminating intracellular ?
cellular, cancerous, pathogens
? is a co-receptor found on helper T cells, which assist in activating other ? cells
? is a co-receptor found on cytotoxic T cells, which kill infected or ? cells
CD4, immune, CD8, cancerous
Tc (? T cells) kill infected cells
Th (? T cells) assist other immune cells
Tregs (? T cells) help maintain immune tolerance
Tm (? T cells) provide long-term immunity
cytotoxic, helper, regulatory, memory
? binding occurs when T cell receptors recognize specific antigens ; ? is necessary for full T cell activation, often involving additional signals from antigen-presenting cells
antigen, co-simulation
Blood ?is the speed at which blood moves through blood vessels
velocity
? ? acquired:
?; contact with a pathogen (produces Tm)
active, naturally
? ? acquired:
antibodies passed from ? to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her ?
passive, naturally, mother, milk
? ? acquired:
?; dead or attenuated pathogens (produces Tm)
active artificially, vaccine
? ? acquired:
? of donated gamma globulin (antibodies)
passive artificially, injection
Functions of Albumin:
? balance, ?, osmotic pressure, Neutralization
fluid, transportation
what would happen is plasma, Th, Tc, Tregs, and Tm cells’ levels dropped?
weakened immunity
? are proteins produced by the immune system that specifically bind to foreign substances, called ?, “marking” them for destruction by way of ?
antibodies, antigens, opsonization
fungi, bacteria, viruses, and parasites can cause an inflammation of the lymphatic vessels. this infection is called ?
lymphangitis
name ex. of a passive naturally acquired, humoral immunity
antibodies passed from mother to baby via the placenta or mother’s milk
A decrease in oxygen on one side of the lungs can cause ?, coughing, ?, and shortness of breath.
hypoxemia, wheezing
an increase in oxygen levels on one side of the lungs will cause the BV’s to ?, allowing for increased blood flow to efficiently deliver the readily available ? to the bloodstream
vasodilate, oxygen
? refers to the process of cell destruction or rupture
cytolysis
? are proteins that bind to cells or substances to mark them for destruction by phagocytes
opsonins
The hepatic portal system’s main function is to transport ? from the ?tract and spleen to the ?
blood, digestive, liver
positives to increased capillary pressure include improved ? flow/delivery and faster waste ?
oxygen, removal
positives to decreased capillary pressure include reduced chances of ?, and increased ? flow
edema, lymph
A respiratory burst, also known as an oxidative burst, is a rapid increase in ? consumption
oxygen
treatments for edema include lowering ? intake, ? the limb, consistent ?, and compression socks.
salt, elevating, exercise
You only need certain vaccines once in a lifetime because some viruses are relatively stable with low ? rates, meaning the immune system can develop a strong, long-lasting ? against them, allowing for lifelong ? after a single vaccination
mutation, memory, protection
variables that regulate BP are ?, peripheral ?, and blood ?
cardiac output, resistance, volume
decreased CO causes ? HR, ?, low BP, and cool extremities.
rapid, hypoxia
CD4 is helper and ? cells.
CD8 is cytotoxic and ? cells.
Tregs, memory
? cells are involved in cloning
B
? ? is a potent hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating BP and fluid balance
Angiotensin II
The ? ?are a network of microvessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the walls of arteries and veins, and remove waste products
vaso vasorum
B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes produce ? cells
memory
name 3 highly vascularized tissues:
bone, muscles of heart and lungs, kidneys, adipose tissue
Memory cells carry a “? response,” meaning they hold information about a previously encountered ?
memory, pathogen
? responses are ? bc they’ve never encountered this specific pathogen.
primary, slower
? responses are ? bc they’ve produced antibodies and memory cells to respond and attack these antigens/pathogens in less time.
2ndary, faster
The three types of tonsils are the ? tonsils, the ? tonsils, and the adenoids
palantine, lingual
An ? recognizes foreign substances like bacteria and viruses, and neutralizes them
antibody
the body attacks self bc it does not recognize self from foreign. this is an example of what?
an autoimmune disease
name 3 hormones that increase BP
aldosterone, angiotensin II, ADH, E, cortisol, insulin
hormones that decrease BP
ANP, OT, sex hormones, ACE inhibitors, substance P
arteries and arterials are capable of ? and ?
vasoconstriction and vasodilation
veins capillaries and venules (do/dont) vasoconstrict and vasodilate
do not
what vessels have elastic CT
arteries, tunica media and intima
increased BP causes increased ? ?
increased CO causes increased ? which causes increased ?
blood flow, BP, blood flow
hydrostatic pressure is ? from arteries to capillary bed
lower
what increases when u consume diuretics?
urine output, insulin
what decreases when u consume diuretics?
what do you not expect to happen when consuming diuretics?
BP, BV, decrease in urine output, dehydration
tunica ? maintains BP
media
name 3 factors that control venous blood pressure?
CO, BV, HR, preload, respiratory pump, viscosity, body position
We want low blood pressure and blood flow in capillaries because it allows for sufficient time for the exchange of ?, ?, and ? products between the blood and surrounding tissues. and because they will ? Under too much pressure
nutrients, gases, wastes, bursts
function of aldosterone:
BP & BV increase and it regulates ? levels and reduces ?
sodium, urination
what provides long term response to changes in BP: kidneys release ?-?-?-?
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system
name 2 things that increase resistance
longer BV, small diameter, viscosity
order of veins from aorta
ascending aorta, descending aorta, diaphragm, abdominal cavity, R/L common iliac arteries
BV’s (do/don’t) change periodically
do
factors that affect pulse rate:
what doesn’t affect pulse rate:
posture, emotions, activity
where u take ur pulse
what aids venous return?
Valve & ? Changes
pressure
venous return is the blood returning to the ? thru the ?
heart, veins
veins are called ? Vessels
Arterioles are called ? Vessels
reservoir, resistance
how to find pulse pressure
systolic-diastolic
what do chemoreceptors detect?
? composition of a substance
chemical
vasomotor center controls ? and ?
vasoconstriction and vasodilation
primary lymph organs
spleen and thymus
2ndry lymph organs
Appendix, tonsils, Peyer’s Patches
what occurs if a lymphatic vessel is blocked
edema, pain
The most common tonsils are the ? tonsils
palatine
what organ atrophies?
thymus
function of spleen
produces ?, synthesizes ?, produces and removes RBC, stores and clears platelets, filters ?, and recycles iron
lymphocytes, antibodies, pathogens
B cells make ? cells and they make ?
plasma, antibodies
? is a chemical that’s released by the virus in a cell and doesn’t enter but binds to infected cells
Interferons (INF)
humoral immunity order:
? exposed
? Cells exposed to antigen
B cells ? itself & makes ? and memory cells
they attack ?
antigen, B, clones, plasma, antigen
Antigen presenting cells include ? cells, ?, and ? cells
dendritic, macrophages, B
IgG: Goo Goo Gaa Gaa
IgE: AllergE
IgM: Mom 1st when sick
IgA:
IgD: differentiation
crosses placenta & has greater concentration
allergy response & mast cells
1st Ab released
breAst milk, teArs, sAlivA & other body secretions
differentiation to B cells
