Test 2 Material Flashcards
Culture
subset of possible meanings which by virtue of encultration (informal or formal, implicit of explicit) become a active thing in an individuals lives
Culture influences…
emotions
attitudes
beliefs
behavior
sex
a person biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women
gender
the category that people identify themselves with
cultures and gender roles
different cultures have different gender rules
Ross Buck Study (encoding)
- men and women watching highly emotional videos (senders) while being recorded
- people would watch the video tapes of the senders reactions and guess what they were watching
result: - it was hard to detect the emotions of men because they didn’t have much emotion comapred to women
- physiological responses came out the same though
encoding
the differences in emotional expression - women encode more than men
Diary Study
men and women were followed for 75 days and would be asked daily how they felt
- women used were naturally cycling or on birth control
- looked at volatility and intertia
- found no difference in the two genders
Take home message from the two expression studies
women are more emotionally expressive than men but not more emotional than they are - due to the culture around men and how it is harder for them to show emotion
tentative speech
speech you aren’t completely sure of
how to express tentative speech
- Expressions of uncertainty / qualifiers (i’m not sure if this is right, but i think the answer is….)
- Hedges (i guess….)
- tag questions (…. isn’t it?)
- intensifiers (that was really, really hard)
Why do men and women talk differently?
Lakoff proposed this theory - explained by societal roles
- men hold more dominant positions, so they tend to use more assertive and dominant speech compared to women
Updates on Lakoff
Leaper and Robnett did a meta analysis of gender differences and found that the significance size was small (gender differences in tentative speech is still around, just has minimized over the years)
Where are gender differences the biggest?
- In longer vs shorter convos, people engage more in tentative speech
- more in young people
- more in groups vs. dyad
- in research labs, people conform more
- concluded that women’s use of tentative language has more to do with interpersonal sensitivity rather than assertiveness
nonverbal communication - distance/touch
women are more touchy than men BUT people of low status are less likely to touch someone of high status
nonverbal communication - eye contact
- women make less eye contact than men but are started at more
- women are seen as more powerful when they make more eye contact
Effects of feminine language
women are seen as more nice and likable but also less competent
Nonverbal communication
- distance/touch
- eye contact
- body language
- facial expressions
nonverbal communication - body language
women “head can’t” more than men - they tilt their head more in photos and look off into the distance
Non-duchenne smiles
False smile - seen when people feel uncomfy but it it not reliably correlated with a specific emotion
- people in lower positions exhibit non-duchenne more when their not actually happy
evolutionary psychology
Mate selection: goal is to reproduce
Women: strategy is to find a man who will stick around and has resources
Men: strategy is to look for youth and attractiveness
big people for evolutionary psychology
David Buss - evolutionary psychology
Eagley - social roles
Conformity
Change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure (pressured from others to do so)
Types of conformity
- compliance - behave in a way you don’t believe in, you’re just doing it bc everyone else is
- obedience - doing something bc you were told to
- acceptance - behaving in a certain way but you have adopted the. belief because it is the right thing to do
Sherif’s studies of norm formation
- in a dark room and a light is put in front of you that has the illusion of jumping
- have people come in by themselves and watch the light to see how long they think it moves
- have groups come in over the next 4 days and saw that the length people were saying as time went on began to come to a consensus
INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Asch’s studies of group pressure (conformity)
- Group of men including all confederates and one normal person
- they were all asked to pick which line resembled a give line
- all the confederates picked incorrectly, which caused 37% of the normal people to also pick the wrong line
result: people conformed to the group
NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Milgram’s study of obedience (shock study)
people “randomly assigned” to be the teacher and confederate is the learner
- every time student says a wrong word, the teacher has to shock them
- the researcher will keep telling them to go on (add obedience)
- the teacher almost always said that they won’t take responsibility for his death and the researcher says that he will
- the researcher at the end will tell them to start again
- study can’t be repeated nowadays
People who refused to do Milgram’s experiment said what in response
- you should not impose one’s will on another
- you are responsible for what you do to another person
- you are always free to choose not to obey demands
factors that affect obedience
- distance / salience of the learner (closer the learner, the more obedience)
- distance of the experimenter (the father away the experimenter, the less obedient)
- institutional context
- group effects (when in groups, people conform more)
Milgram’s study replication
Burger 2009 - noted that 79% of people who contiuned after 150 volts went all the way to the end voltage
Dolinski - generated higher levels of obedience but was bc lower shock levels were used
Informational social influence
people will easily conform if they think someone else has the right answer
when will people conform to informational social influence
- when the situation is ambiguous - look for clarification
- when situation is a crisis
- when other’s are experts
normative social influence
we conform because we want to be accepted and liked
- hard not to follow norms sometimes
when will people conform to normative social influence
- when the group is 3 or more (peaks at 5)
- when the group is important
- when you have no allies
- when you have a group culture that is collectivistic
- when people have a high need for approval
reactants
doing the opposite of what someone is telling you to do to make a point
persuasion
change in attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message
dual process model
- takes into account two ways attitude change occurs
- central info is processed more deeply than other info (certain info is processed on the surface)
Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
- central route
- peripheral route
central route
the case where people elaborate on a persuasive argument
- occurs when people have both the ABILITY and MOTIVATION to listen carefully
- need for cognition
peripheral route
the case whereby people do NOT elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive manner but by peripheral cues
peripheral cues
- attractiveness - how enticing it is
- credibility
- setting
- how something is said rather than what
Results of the central route
- attitude change that is long lasting and resistant to change
result of the peripheral route
attitude change that is temporary and susceptible to change
when do persuasive messages flop?
- groups : govt will create laws so that people are required to do them, mostly so that people are protected - generating persuasion
Yale attitude change approach - carl hovland
- the communicator - who says what to whom
- the actual message (and how it is communicated)
- the audience
The WHO source characteristics
- credible speakers (those with expertise) are good persuaders
- attractiveness (attractive people are more persuasive)
The WHO source characteristics - how do you become an expert and trusted?
- be an expert
- be introduced as someone who is knowledgeable - even if you have don’t actually know what is going on
- make eye contact
- speak quickly
The WHO source characteristics - attractiveness
- Can be physical - people tend to be persuaded more easily when the person is hot
- good personality - people tend to be persuaded more by people who they like
- importance of salinity - you are more persuasive to someone if you can make it seem like you have things in common to them
The WHAT: message chracteristics
Are logical or emotional messages more persuasive
- analytical people are more responsive to rational appeals
- disinterested audience is more influenced by emotional messages - people who are not hard thinkers will be more appealed by emotional messages
Do fear appeals work?
- Yes, usually
- fear creates arousal, which helps them remember the message and retrieve it more quickly
- sometimes, the fear is just too much, where it actually hurts the intentions
message characterstics
- should you express your side only? or should you acknowledge the other side?
- it depends
- one sided better when persuading someone who is likely to agree with you
- two sided better with those likely to disagree
is it better to make your point first or last
- It depends!!
primacy effect
other things being equal, info is presented first usually has the most influence
recency effect
info presented last sometimes has the most influence
soloman asch primary effect study
people came in lab and Asch would tell them about this guy “JOHN” and then tell them to rate him
- one group got positive attributes first, then negative
- one group hear the negative attributes first, then positive
- found that when you have positive characteristics first, they tended to rate him higher - primacy effect!!!!
Chaiken and Eagly study
IV: channel (written audio, video) and difficulty of message (easy or hard)
DV: Opinion change
Result:
easy messages: more channels the better
when you have a difficult message, it is better to give it to your audience a written form of the message
Audience Characteristics - Age
- Life cycle explanations - attitudes change as we age
- Generational explanation - attitudes older people adopt when they are young persist (more popular)
Audience characteristics - Positive Mood
- People in a good mood are more easily persuaded and less critical
Six Universal Influence Principles
- Reciprocity
- consitency
- social proof (consensus)
- liking
- authority
- scarcity
Techniques cults use
- love bombing
- foot in the door
- repetition
- altered states
- denial of privacy
- structured activities
- fear
What is a group
- 2 or more people who interact with each other and are INTERDEPENDENT, in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
Bob Zajonc Social Facilitation Study
IV: Presence of the audience
First group - used simple mazes for cockroaches with an audience of cockroaches watching
Result: presence of an audience enhances performance with a simple maze
Second group - used complex maze with audience watching
Result: presence of an audience resulted in longer time to reach the end
Ties into the arousal and dominant response
social facilitation
the impact a presence of an audience has on an individuals performance
Arousal and dominant response
- the presence of other increase physiological arousal
- When an audience is present, it is easier to do something that is simple (dominant response) but harder to do something complex
Social Loafing
Tendency for people to put in less effort when they pool their efforts towards a common goal than when they are individually accountable
How does the complexity of a task impact social loafing
Occurs more when you have a simple task
Working in a group on a complex task makes people perform better because it takes the load off of them
Jackson and Williams Social Loafing Task
IV: Type of maze (complex or simple)
- People come into a room and work on either a simple or complex maze
- another person is present in the room with them working on the same maze
- IV: How the score was being evaluated (individual or group)
- told that you would be evaluated individually or average the score of the two people in the room
- found that when the score was being averaged, people felt more relaxed and did better on the complex mazes but worse on easy mazes
2 things to predict whether the presence of others will help or hinder individual performance
- whether individual effort will be evaluated
- whether the task is simple or complex
Deindividuation
the loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people are in a crowd, leading to an increase in deviant acts
David Dodd Deindividuation Study
- people come into lab and asked to anonymously answer what they would do if their actions had no consequences
- People reported very heinous things, concluding it was due to deindividuation
Why does deindividuation occur
- It makes people feel less accountable
- it increases obedience to group norms (people obey the group and dont wanna go against it
When do groups do better than individuals?
- groups do better than individuals if they rely on the person with the most expertise
- groups are also successful is members have non-overlapping knowledge
Staser and Titus Group Influences Study
People came in groups of 4 and are told to discuss 2 candidates for an election
- IV: Type of info (shared or unshared)
- Shared condition: each person gets same packet with 8 positive things and 4 negative about candidate A
- Unshared condition: each person receives a different packed with the same 4 negative traits but 2 positive traits that are different
- majority of shared group said A was better but 24% of unshared picked A
found: there should always be one person to facilitate a discussion to ensure everyone’s opinion is heard
- group discussions should last long enough to get beyond common knowledge
Group think
the main goal in your group is to keep it cohesive and happy and make sure that everyone agrees and reach consensus
Antecedents of group think
- highly cohesive groups
- group isolation
- directive leader
- high stress
- poor decision making procedures
Symptoms of groupthink
- overestimate groups might and right
- close minded
- pressure towards conformity
