Test 2

Question 1

Socinians

Answer 1

• Liberalism in this sense is distinct from previous forms of heresy within the Christian community, such as Sabellianism, Arianism, Eutychianism, and Arianism. In the sixteenth century, there was a conflict with Socinianism, which rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, and there were various doctrinal battles between Calvinists, Arminians, Lutherans, and Catholics. But all parties to these conflicts, even the Socinians, appealed to the final authority of Scripture.

Question 2

Book of Common Prayer

Answer 2

• The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) is the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion, as well as by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism. The original book, published in 1549 in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. The work of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English.
• Also the Act of Uniformity was passed which imposed the Book of Common Prayer on all of England, the 1559 version which was the definitive version (it may still be the legal version as they tried to change it in 1920 but it failed)

Question 3

Elizabethan Set­tlement

Answer 3

• Back to the British Isles: Puritanism and the Church of EnglandThe Elizabethan Settlement established 1.) an Act of Supremacy and 2.) an Act of Uniformity through the Book of Common PrayerBut there were many who were unhappy with this settlement

In the Settlement, it says that the English clergy had to go back to the old Roman Catholic way of doing vestments and ceremonies until they might change it, but they never did

Question 4

Philip Spener

Answer 4

• 1635-1705
• University of Strausburg - Ministry - excelled
• Good pious, moral lifestyle
• Traveled many places - Catholic and Reformed
• Remained Lutheran - called into the ministry
• Influenced by - Johannes Arndt (1555-1621)j - emphasized the necessity of sanctification
• Believed he was following Luther’s footsteps
• Reformation had been incomplete - many abuses continued to exist - OT Israel
• 1666 - moves to Frankfurt - where pietism is born as a movement - senior clergy - comes up with ideas to deal with the situation in Frankfurt
• Preached whole Bible - didn’t follow lectionary
• Confirmation important
• Days of prayer and fasting
• Most controversial - holding meetings (small group) in addition to Sunday morning worship - voluntary - groups of piety - small group meetings to learn Bible in depth and to encourage each other in holy life living
• Pia Desideria - most famous work
• Critics - known as orthodox

Question 5

39 Articles

Answer 5

• Also the Act of Uniformity was passed which imposed the Book of Common Prayer on all of England, the 1559 version which was the definitive version (it may still be the legal version as they tried to change it in 1920 but it failed)

In 1571, the Thirty-Nine Articles were also passed (taken from Cranmer’s confession of faith), and they were incorporated into the Book of Common Prayer

These articles are thoroughly Protestant, although they are classically Reformed on the Sacrament

• Document of Faith. In 1563 Church or England wrote 39 articles on doctrine. These were adopted by Parliament and made law. Their equivalent of Book of Concord, etc. Articles were Reformed in content. Sola Scriptura, two sacrament, smaller canon of Bible, etc. As for Eucharist it is Calvinist not Luther. Art. 28 and 29 say body is not taken. Overall, clearly Calvinist. Not completely reformed - not Catholic and not Lutheran - in between.

Question 6

Puritans

Answer 6

From the first, the Queen Elizabeth was faced, however, by a more aggressive Protestantism. Many who had been exiles under Mary had come under the influence of Geneva or Zürich and returned filled with admiration for their thoroughgoing Protestantism. They were men prevailingly of deep religious earnestness, upon whom Elizabeth must depend in her conflict with Rome, yet who, if they could introduce the changes which they desired, the Queen believed would turmoil a situation kept at peace at best with difficulty. Yet the desires of these men are easily understandable from a religious point of view. They would purge from the services what they believed to be remnants of Roman superstition, and procure in every parish an earnest, spiritual-minded, preaching minister. In particular, they objected to the prescribed clerical dress as perpetuating in the popular mind the thought of the ministry as a spiritual estate of peculiar powers, to kneeling at the reception of the Lord’s Supper as implying adoration of the physical presence of Christ therein, to the use of the ring in marriage as continuing the estimate of matrimony as a sacrament, and the sign of the cross in baptism as superstitious. Because they thus desired to purify the church, this party, by 1564, was popularly called the “Puritans.”

• But Puritans sought after better piety than that and emphasized a life changing decision to truly experience the gospel

Puritans respected Christian law, but they didn’t see the law centrally as convicting, but also it should be a guide to encourage the Christian lifeAnother name for the Puritans were “Precisionists” as they emphasized following the law to a T

• They didn’t have a lot of room for Christian liberty however, as they didn’t allow for things that God did not explicitly permit in the Scriptures
• This is the regulative principle, so they could sing Psalms but not hymns, you can’t kneel for communion because it’s not in the Bible, etc.e.g. the third commandment was taken to mean that the old Sabbath of Saturday was now Sunday, so a pious Christian was not to do anything but pray and meditate on Sunday

Question 7

Separatists

Answer 7

• Separatism/ Separatists - Before civil war gave up on national church entirely. Institutionally separate. Founder was Robert Browne (1550-1633) led people out of church (which was illegal) and then out of the country (to the Netherlands). Went back to England and rejoined the Church of England. People stayed behind in Netherlands. One group started in Scruby England under John Robinson and Elder William Brewster. One part of this group went to New England (Plymouth Plantation) in 1620.

Question 8

Jacob Arminius

Answer 8

• Jacob Arminius (1560-1609)
• Son of Dutch craftsman
• Family massacred by Spanish during the rebellion
• Calvin was dead
• Enters ministry of Dutch Reformed
• Concerned about doctrine of predestination
• Opposition party formed by Jacob Arminius (1560-1609). Cutch. Family killed by Spanish troops. Learned doctrine from Beza. Eventually came to see double decree as making God responsible for sin and man nothing more than a robot. However national unity was more important than religious unity so didn’t get much support. Did get backing by Oldenbarneveldt who became leader of Dutch after William the Silent. Olden. was a Catholic. Did promote

Arminius in Dutch Reform Church. Got position at University. Got into debate with supra proponent Gomerius. Arminius died but supports wrote up a document called the Remonstrance of Gouda which was the Arminian confession. Adopted by 46 ministers in 1610 one of which was Hugo Grotius. The Remonstrance has 5 propositions

Question 9

Synod of Dort

Answer 9

• Synod of Dort (1618-19)
• Arminian challenge of predestination
• Armenians outnumbered
• Five Propositions - 5 Point Calvinism - TULIP
• Total Depravity
• Unconditional Election
• Limited Atonement
• Irresistible Grace
• Perseverance of the saints
• Synod of Dort (1518-1519) was a complete victory for Calvinists. They adopted five articles to counter the five of Arminians.

Question 10

James I

Answer 10

• James I (1603-25) - inherited the throne of his mother as a toddler
• James I (1603-1625) first of Stuart dynasty. Succeeded Elizabeth. Was king of Scotland and became king of England. Puritans thought they could get more reform from him due to the influence of Knox in Scotland. He was petitioned for reform - purge the Common Book of Prayer. He agreed to preside over the Hampton Court Conference (1604) to discuss these reforms. He was a Calvinist but not a Presbyterian. He did agree with the Puritans on better educated and supported clergy. He insisted on bishops. He refused to condemn ceremonies since they were adiaphora. He said he would clean up the church but gave the responsibility to the bishops who didn’t do much. Puritans got nothing else official from James I. James saw himself as the head of the church.

Question 11

King James Bible

Answer 11

• The heart of the Puritan concern was for a new English bible. James agreed but didn’t grant them the Geneva version and therefore authorized the “Authorized Version” know as King James Bible (published in 1611). A careful revision of earlier English versions. Was the standard for 300 years.

Question 12

Charles I

Answer 12

• James’ I son was Charles I (1625-1649), who was a different man from JamesJames was a bit of an oddball, apparently drooled a lot and had weird sexual kinksBut Charles was a good husband and a good man, but he was not very good at politically navigatingSo when the Spanish match failed, he married a French woman instead and allowed her to remain a Roman Catholic
• He also allowed Papists to be a part of his court and let his wife have a priest
• So the Parliament was not willing to give Charles what was normally due a king, such as his proper share of taxesSo the king decided to send the Parliament home and did call them again for over a decade
• The Parliament however was the only one who could levy taxes directly, so Charles found some creative way to get the taxes he needed to run the government

Question 13

Pietism

Answer 13

• Philip Spener
• Johannes Arndt - influenced Spener
• Advocate for necessity of Christian life as much as pure doctrine
• Idea that Christianity is based on a new birth - work of God the Holy Spirit - man becomes a child of blessedness from a sinner
• Holy living
• God-father of pietism
• Luther - believed he was following in his footsteps
• Preaches on text that he felt applicable to the situation
• Preached entire Bible

Question 14

Oliver Cromwell

Answer 14

• Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader. He served as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland “and of the dominions thereto belonging” from 1653 until his death, acting simultaneously as head of state and head of government of the new republic.
• Cromwell was born into the middle gentry to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIII’s minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life, as only four of his personal letters survive along with a summary of a speech that he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a religious conversion in the 1630s, taking a generally tolerant view towards the many Protestant sects of his period. He was an intensely religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses, and he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories.

Question 15

Westminster Confession

Answer 15

• Puritan assembly - they don’t all agree
• Two factions - Presbyterians (dominate) and Congregationalists
• Westminster - sign of Presbyterianism (like Concordia is Lutheran)
• Westminster confessions - double predestination - covenant language - limited atonement - sacraments are holy signs and seals of covenant grace - baptism of infants - spiritual presence in communion
• Going back, when the Parliament met with the Scottish representatives at Westminster Abbey, and they had to agree to reform the English Church to conform to the best model of church governmentIn 1647, they tried to treat all the issues which were plaguing the church, including not only the liturgical issues but government, doctrine, and confessionThis becomes the Westminster Confession and the two catechisms, the Short and Long Westminster Catechisms
• But despite all this, the Puritans couldn’t agree: this is where they broke out into presbyterians and congregationalists
• The Westminster documents favored the Presbyterians, and the Scots, and became a norm of Presbyterianism (so Westminster becomes a favorite name like Concordia for the LCMS)
• They affirmed double predestination, used covenantal language, limited atonement, sacraments as signs, mandates the baptism of infants, Lord’s Supper is spiritual not physical, and Sabbatarian
• But the real kicker was church government, as they decided the presbyteries, the councils, would govern the church
• The Congregationalists could accept all of the doctrine, but would not tolerate the formulation on church government

Question 16

Presbyterians

Answer 16

• Presbyterianism is a part of the reformed tradition within Protestantism, which traces its origins to Britain, particularly Scotland.
• Presbyterian churches derive their name from the presbyterian form of church government, which is governed by representative assemblies of elders. A great number of Reformed churches are organized this way, but the word Presbyterian, when capitalized, is often applied uniquely to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland,[2] as well as several English dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War.[3] Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707,[4] which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, and the Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America, mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism.

Question 17

Independents

(Congregationalists)

Answer 17

• But despite all this, the presbyterian system did not last in EnglandThe Parliament was dominated by Presbyterians, but their power was checked by the army, the New Model Army of CromwellCromwell and his army was congregationalist, also known as independents, who believed the church consisted of independent congregations of true believers
• They army did the fighting and won the war, so they ought to have their say (also they weren’t paid very well)
• Congregationalists or Independents, which were divided between separatists and non-separatistsThe church consisted of visible saints who struggled against the world and were the remnant in whichever place they gatheredTherefore they should be the ones to make the decisions on how they were going to run things, because they had the authority, they were the saints
• Those churches could choose to set up presbyteries, but they had to have the decision to do so

Question 18

Baptists

Answer 18

• John Smyth - a separatist in Holland - was against infant baptism because he wanted people with a conversion experience and then baptism. Also infant baptism was associated with corrupt church. In 1608 Smyth baptized himself. There may have been a regional influence by Anabaptists. Smyth and his congregation became the first Baptists and wend back to London. Smyth was an Arminian. Christ died for all. His branch of Baptists are known as General Baptists because of Christ’s general atonement. In the 1630’s, under Henry Jacob, another group also believed baptism was for believers only. The became known as Particular Baptists because atonement was only for some (double predestination, etc). Yet another group started immersion only in 1640 which eventually went to all Baptists. It was illegal to be a Baptist and they were persecuted. During civil war, things got lax, and more preachers came out. Movement went from purifying church to purifying sacraments and practices. After the civil war John Bunyan came to prominence and wrote Pilgrim’s Progress.

Question 19

George Fox

Answer 19

• George Fox - founder of the Quakers - early 20s had an experience - awareness of an inner light within himself - then gave up in the institutional church - he began to preach wherever the Spirit led him - went to prison - he had high moral standards - got people to follow the inner light of Christ - total irrelevance of the church establishment - one of the first egalitarian movements - language of intimacy - thee and thou

Question 20

Quakers

Answer 20

• Quakers - movement of the Spirit which determines preaching and teaching - no room for preachers or sacraments.
• Direct revelation given to individuals in the religion.
• Radicals/Spiritualists - Most groups don’t last past civil war except for the Society of Friends i.e. Quakers. (May not even be considered Puritans because they are so radical). They are very in tune to spiritual experiences and internal testimony of the Spirit to show true Christianity. Direct prompting of the Spirit takes the place of ordained ministry or objective sacrament. Founder was George Fox (1624-91). When young he wondered about his own Christianity. In 1656 he had a sudden insight that certainty of your Christianity was affirmed by the “inner light of Christ.” Similar to how God touched the OT prophets. Emphasized immediacy of Christ working in the heart of the believer. Didn’t need church or ordained minister. Anyone would preach as the Spirit moved them.

Question 21

Test Act

Answer 21

• The Test Acts were a series of English penal laws that served as a religious test for public office and imposed various civil disabilities on Roman Catholics and nonconformists. The principle was that none but people taking communion in the established Church of England were eligible for public employment, and the severe penalties pronounced against recusants, whether Catholic or nonconformist, were affirmations of this principle.

Question 22

James II

Answer 22

• James II and VII (14 October 1633O.S. – 16 September 1701[1]) was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII,[3] from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, his reign is now remembered primarily for struggles over religious tolerance. However, it also involved the principles of absolutism and divine right of kings and his deposition ended a century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown.
• James II had a son by a Catholic wife and people got worried. In 1688 William III came in with an army on the urging of the political rulers of the country. James II and his family ran and William III and Mary (James daughter) ruled. This was the Glorious Revolution. The supported the Church of England but did not make it a state church. Catholics were left alone and other Protestants were tolerated.

Question 23

Glorious Revolu­tion

Answer 23

• The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, refers to the November 1688 deposition and subsequent replacement of James II and VII as ruler of England, Scotland and Ireland by his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William of Orange. The outcome of events in all three kingdoms and Europe, while the Revolution was quick and relatively bloodless, establishing the new regime took much longer and led to significant casualties.

Question 24

John Locke

Answer 24

• Locke (1632-1709)
• Enlightenment
• Wrote about the reasonableness of Christianity. Things in Christianity were more reasonable than their counter arguments. He argued on the basis of the fulfillment of prophesy and miracles. Christian truth on the basis of reason is what is meant by rationalism in theology. There are fundamental truths that are reasonable and there are others that are not. Trinity is against reason. Christian morality is reasonable. The human intellect can know moral laws as well as natural laws. This way of thinking started to dominate intellectuals and clergy in England and the Continent. Believe in Jesus and your sins are taken care of, now live and follow his example.

Question 25

August Hermann Francke

Answer 25

• August Franke (1665-1727) - Church pietism. He had many doubts about his Christianity as he grew up and eventually even doubted the existence of God. Prayed for God to reveal himself. Depended upon divine providence. Taught at University at Leipzig in Hebrew. He eventually had a “conversion experience” while preparing for a sermon on John 20:31. He said real Christianity had to have such a conversion experience and an awakening like himself. He taught this and got in trouble and kicked out. He went to Halle and this became the institution for pietism in Lutheranism. He influenced the training of pastors in a pietistic way.
• This area also set up and orphanage, a place for widows, boarding house for poor students, and other such charitable institutions. He was a good administrator in this. They also pushed missions and became a center for Protestant missions. And sent some of the first Lutheran missionaries to America.
• The mission performed was to the unbeliever and to the baptized. In the baptized you are looking for and awakening and a felt experience. Of sin, a felt sorrow for your sin and an awakening of what your Christianity is to you in the light of God’s grace.
• What drives Franke is a post-millennialism movement. Some orthodox theologian generally opposed foreign missions in that fact that the great commission was assigned to the apostles, or completed by them.

Question 26

Nicholas von Zinzendorf

Answer 26

• Zinzendorf (1700-1760) - Pietism extended past the Lutheran church. Was for all branches of the church. Not as gloomy as other pietists. Let the joy of Jesus bloom in your heart. Different kind of inner experience and a different type of life style. From minor nobility. Was Spener’s Godchild. AT age of 10 he went to Holle and was a gifted scholar and influenced by Franke. His conversion experience was more romantic than Franke and came from the contemplation of a picture Eka Homo. Jesus in the crown of thorns. “All this I did for you, what are you doing for me?” Wanted to serve the church and did. Became ordained and came in contact with a band of persecuted Christians from Moravia. Hussite left overs. In 1722 he opened his estate Herrnhut (The Lord’s Watch) to a group of Moravians who were followers of Hus. A church forms from this and is sometimes called the Herrnhuts. He is considered as the re-founder of the Moravian Brotherhood but they really influence him and they became his model for Christian renewal all over.
• Zinzendorf Theology - Didn’t write creeds and confessions but more interested in worship and life style. Apostolic practice should be the norm in worship. Re-introduced foot washing, love feasts, kiss of peace, casting of lots. He thought Christians were to live in community so you had to give up a private household. He organized communities into households based on age and occupation. Wrote much for Christians to use to encourage each other. His emphasis was on “Jesus.” Christology was cental to all but not set in the person of Jesus but meditation on the suffering of Jesus. Emphasis on the blood and wounds of Jesus. His followers were “little bloodworms in the pool of grace.” Used sensual and sexual images. Ran with the idea of the bride of Christ. He fit in the Trinity with the Father, Holy Spirit (mother), Jesus the Son, the Church as conceived in the wounds of Jesus and God’s daughter-in-law. In his later years he repented for his familial and sensual imagery but never gave of his “religion of the heart.” Communion of Christ in communion with others. Had a great influence on Wesley and the beginnings of Methodism.

Question 27

Enlightenment

Answer 27

• Enlightenment - The Age of Reason
• A new way of looking at the world and man’s position in the universe and became dominant over time (modern thinking). Prior to this the ordinary man viewed the world as a place permeate by spiritual reality - God and Satan - and were the direct cause of blessings and cursings of man. In the 18th century there was new thinking - scientific, naturalistic, secular, etc. The universe as man experiences make sense with out using spiritual causes. Man can use reason to find causes of phenomenon in their lives. Once having figured out the reasons to change things and improve the lot of human beings. Not atheistic, per se. Early thinkers were definitely not atheists but they radically de-spiritualized the universe. God may be the ultimate cause and spiritual forces may be active but in everyday life you really could live on rational thinking - Christian or not. The scientific method is at the heart of this movement and doesn’t depend on the Christian. The application of scientific methods to all of life. Today there is a great deal of skepticism on this approach since people can do such science but should they?
• • Some root enlightenment thinking in late scholasticism and their use of observation. More likely tied to the natural sciences astronomy and physics in the 16th and 17th centuries. Thinking that challenged modern authority - you can understand nature with your intellect and nature follows natural laws. In astronomy the driving name was Ptolemy (200 A.D.) who developed a system to predict the movement of the heavenly bodies. The earth was center and all heavenly bodies were in the crystal spheres. System was too complicated and was overridden by the theory of Copernicus with the Sun at the center. This theory replaced and updated by Brahe and Kepler. Brahe’s data was used by Kepler to formulate three mathematical laws of planetary motions. One law showed that planets orbited on an elliptical orbit not a circular one. The big thing is that the universe works in a way man can understand. Copernicus was dismissed by both Protestants and Catholics because the bible said the Sun went around the Earth.
• • The Catholic church tangled with Galileo (1564-1642). Galileo’s observations went against Ptolemy and Aristotle. He also did this during the time of the counter-reformation (not good timing). Galileo used the printing press to publish his ideas and to challenge Catholic authorities. Ecclesiastical leaders used the bible and Galileo says that God was using these terms in the bible to explain the world to people in ways they could understand at the time. He was charged with heresy and Galileo was forced to recant.
• • Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - University of Cambridge and the Royal Academy. The Law of Gravity. Wrote Principia on mathematical formulations for the universe. The same force of gravity was at work in the whole universe to explain their movements. Our corner of the universe is characteristic of everywhere. The law of gravity was universal and simple. The mind of man now understood one of God’s basic designs to the universe. People then decided to see if everything else could be understood in a similar way. Newton triggered the Enlightenment.
• • Francis Bacon - Prior to Newton. He described the scientific or empirical model as the basis of knowledge. Carefully observe, take careful data, detect a pattern and call it a hypothesis, then experiment to check the hypothesis. Inductive logic or reasoning was systematized. Don’t go by accepted authority, check it out. Father of British Empiricism.
• • Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - French mathematician and philosopher. He made skepticism popular. How can I know something is true? Don’t accept anything unless everyone accepts it that no one can offer a reasonable alternative. He finally realized that there was one undoubted truth and that was that he doubted. Cogito ero sum. From there he tried to derive other undoubted truths. Distinguished between evidence of the senses, which could be mistaken, and the conclusions of the mind which are certain. Father of Rationalism. Traditional authorities are again replaced by the individual.

Question 28

Rationalism

Answer 28

• Rationalism was in one respect a response to the 30 years war. People saw it as a religious war and a great deal of cynicism. As a result science said if you can’t see, feel or touch it (matters of faith) you better take another look at it. God as the great clockmaker. The church in rationalism sees God in relation to a moralism. Church is the teacher for good society and works in a symbiotic relationship with the state.
• Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - French mathematician and philosopher. He made skepticism popular. How can I know something is true? Don’t accept anything unless everyone accepts it that no one can offer a reasonable alternative. He finally realized that there was one undoubted truth and that was that he doubted. Cogito ero sum. From there he tried to derive other undoubted truths. Distinguished between evidence of the senses, which could be mistaken, and the conclusions of the mind which are certain. Father of Rationalism. Traditional authorities are again replaced by the individual.

Question 29

Deism

Answer 29

• Comes from rationalism
• Reason gives you something even simpler
• Father of Deism - Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1500s)
• Build into every man - There is a God - He ought to be worshiped - if virtue is virtue is ought to be rewarded, so there must be an afterlife to reward or punish
• Many founding fathers were Deists

Question 30

Isaac Newton

Answer 30

• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - University of Cambridge and the Royal Academy. The Law of Gravity. Wrote Principia on mathematical formulations for the universe. The same force of gravity was at work in the whole universe to explain their movements. Our corner of the universe is characteristic of everywhere. The law of gravity was universal and simple. The mind of man now understood one of God’s basic designs to the universe. People then decided to see if everything else could be understood in a similar way. Newton triggered the Enlightenment.

Question 31

Rene Descartes

Answer 31

• 1596-1650
• French mathematician and philosopher. He made skepticism popular. How can I know something is true? Don’t accept anything unless everyone accepts it that no one can offer a reasonable alternative. He finally realized that there was one undoubted truth and that was that he doubted. Cogito ero sum. From there he tried to derive other undoubted truths. Distinguished between evidence of the senses, which could be mistaken, and the conclusions of the mind which are certain. Father of Rationalism. Traditional authorities are again replaced by the individual.
• French mathematcian
• Father of modern philosophy
• Cannot rely upon the senses
• Deductive reasoning - start with postulates and move to specific situations
• Postulate #1 - “I think therefore I am” (doubting)
• Objective versus subjective - it isn’t true unless it is true to me
• Mathematics

Question 32

Francis Bacon

Answer 32

• 1561-1626
• Prior to Newton.
• He described the scientific or empirical model as the basis of knowledge. Carefully observe, take careful data, detect a pattern and call it a hypothesis, then experiment to check the hypothesis. Inductive logic or reasoning was systematized. Don’t go by accepted authority, check it out. Father of British Empiricism.
• Scientific Method
• Empiricism - observe it, as many instances as you can and articulate the phenomenon as best you can
• Develop hypothesis and go back and test it
• Evidence based - no preconceived notion - look at data
• Inductive - from specific to the general

Question 33

Voltaire

Answer 33

• 1694-1778
• Skeptical Enlightenment
• French Catholic
• As a Frenchman, he was highly critical of the French Papist church and saw many of its abuses, the uneducatedness of its clergy, the superstition of the people, etc.
• Exiled to England - like Locke and Newton - early voices on French Enlightenment through his writings
• Then went to Prussia - met Frederick the Great - Enlightened Monarch - Frederick and Voltaire were equally arrogant - didn’t last long in Prussia
• Most famous for novels - Candide -

Question 34

David Hume

Answer 34

• 1711-1776
• Enlightement thinker
• Skeptic and Philisophic
• Reduced reason to the product of experience
• British Empirical School of Locke
• Experience or idea of human experience
• Possible to know ideas but can’t prove them - you don’t know something until you experience it - after you experience it you can know it
• Uses skepticism - “It is contrary to experience that a miracle should be true, but not contrary to experience that testimony be false.”
• David Hume (1711-1776) - A Scott. He was an agnostic. Used persuasive arguments as opposed to mocking. Wrote a history of England but is seen as the founder of modern skepticism. He said reason is no more reasonable than anything else. That which is in the mind is only from the senses. The experience itself or a memory of it. Once in the brain, ideas themselves are not certain because they are based on sense experiences. Confidence in intellect. There is no absolute. He said causality was just your observation. You only really saw a number of things happen. The idea of God as the uncaused cause is shattered as well as natural theology.

Question 35

J. S. Semler

Answer 35

• (1725-91)
• Father of higher criticism. Comes out of Pietist Lutheranism from Holle. Rejected the Pietistic religion of his youth. He wanted to use reason and rationality to find out what was true in Christianity and the Bible. He said the Old Testament shows marks of development in religion. He saw to religious traits - Jewish national religion and universal truth. He wanted to separate out the universal truths from the Jewish national religion. He also wanted to show historically how the Christian bible came about. There were elements of truth that were being clouded by superstition. He didn’t believe in prophetic revelation from God but he did believe in prophetic insight.

Question 36

G. E. Lessing

Answer 36

• (1729-1781)
• The name most commonly tied to German Enlightenment The Aufklarung. He was a Lutheran writer but was interested in philosophical and religious ideas. He was a deist. He popularized higher criticism in intellectual circles by publishing the work of H.S. Reimarus (d. 1767). He said he found these writings in Wolfenbuttel and called them the Wolfenbuttel Fragment. The content was not so important as to popularize the ideas of attacking the miraculous parts of the bible. One of his theatrical works Nathan the Wise is on natural religion.

It said that at their core all religions are the same. He was a popularizer of rationalism. In another work the Education of the Human Race he argued that the human race was progressing in religion and the traditional creeds will some day no longer be necessary and only the principles will remain since they can be rationally determined. “Lessing’s Ditch” - the accidental truths of history can never become the proof of necessary truths of reason. There are two realms in which people learn - the world and the intellect. What is really true are the intellectual truths. History is in the world and is therefore only probably true. At best the historical data in the New Testament is only probably truth. The ditch is history and it will always separate that which probably true and the truth of rational ideas.

Question 37

Barth, Karl

Answer 37

• European theologian. Had been a pastor and became a professor at Basel. His commentary on Romans in 1918 proclaimed the reality of God’s existence and God’s work in human affairs. It was the cornerstone of his message. He accepted higher criticism but he said God revealed himself in the Christ event and the biblical record. What happened with Jesus was an act of the transcendent God for man that meant something. He wrote Evangelical Theology where you see he does not accept traditional Christianity. You can’t systematize Christian revelation into true and false statements because it is larger than human speech or understanding. Sometimes connected with existentialism - things don’t make sense but I am going to act like it does.

Question 38

Baur, F. C.

Answer 38

• (1792-1860)
• Concentrated on New Testament. Founder of Tubinger School. The NT has two kinds of Christianity 1) religion of the Law and Messiah is the lawgiver - thesis 2) the religion of Paul with a focus on grace - antithesis 3) the “Catholic Church” which was a synthesis of the two.

With this he dated the books by law then Paul then Catholic.

Question 39

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich

Answer 39

• (1906-1945)
• German Lutheran theologian who came to prominence between the two world wars as a proponent of the ecumenical movement and on account of his view of Christianity’s role in a secularized world. During WW2, he became involved with those who plotted Hiterler’s overthrow and death, as a result of which he was imprisoned and then executed just shortly before the war came to an end.
• Theology. Two best known works come for WW2 era, one from pre-war period but when B. = actively engaged in action against Hitler, his Nachfolge (Cost of Discipleship, 1937) and his prison writings, published posthumously in 1951 (English, 1955, Letters and Papers from Prison). In the first of these, in the opening chapters, B. contrasts two forms of grace, “cheap” and “costly”:
• Cheap grace means grace as a doctrine, a principle, a system. It means forgiveness of sins proclaimed as a general truth, the love of God taught as the Christian “conception” of God….The Church which holds the correct doctrine of grace has, it is supposed, ipso facto a part in that grace. In such a Church the world finds a cheap covering for its sins; no contrition is required, still less any real desire to be delivered from sin.
• This is the opposite of real grace (or “costly grace”) that B. associates with discipleship. “Such grace is costly because it calls us to follow, and it is grace because it calls us to follow Jesus Christ. It is costly because it costs a man his life, and it is grace because it gives a man the only true life.”

Question 40

Bultmann, Rudolf

Answer 40

• 20 August 1884 – 30 July 1976) was a German Lutheran theologian and professor of the New Testament at the University of Marburg. He was one of the major figures of early-20th-century biblical studies. A prominent critic of liberal theology, Bultmann instead argued for an existentialist interpretation of the New Testament. His hermeneutical approach to the New Testament led him to be a proponent of dialectical theology.
• Bultmann is known for his belief that the historical analysis of the New Testament is both futile and unnecessary, given that the earliest Christian literature showed little interest in specific locations.[11] Bultmann argued that all that matters is the “thatness”, not the “whatness” of Jesus,[a] i.e. only that Jesus existed, preached, and died by crucifixion matters, not what happened throughout his life.[12]
• Bultmann relied on demythologization, an approach interpreting the mythological elements in the New Testament existentially. Bultmann contended that only faith in the kerygma, or proclamation, of the New Testament was necessary for Christian faith, not any particular facts regarding the historical Jesus.[13]

Question 41

Carey, William

Answer 41

• 17 August 1761 – 9 June 1834) was a British Christian missionary, Particular Baptist minister, translator, social reformer and cultural anthropologist who founded the Serampore College and the Serampore University, the first degree-awarding university in India.[1]
• He went to Kolkata, West Bengal, India in 1793, but was forced to leave the British Indian territory by non-Baptist Christian missionaries.[2] He joined the Baptist missionaries in the Danish colony of Frederiksnagar in Serampore. One of his first contributions was to start schools for impoverished children where they were taught reading, writing, accounting and Christianity.[3] He opened the first theological university in Serampore offering divinity degrees,[4][5] and campaigned to end the practice of sati.[6]
• Carey is known as the “father of modern missions.”[7] His essay, An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens, led to the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society.[2][8] The Asiatic Society commended Carey for “his eminent services in opening the stores of Indian literature to the knowledge of Europe and for his extensive acquaintance with the science, the natural history and botany of this country and his useful contributions, in every branch.”[9]

Question 42

Edwards, Jonathan

Answer 42

• (1703-58) - Wanted to stay a drift toward Arminiansim. His Puritan preaching wasn’t working. He started to preach on justification by faith resulted in new enthusiasm for the old religion. Saw this as a sign of the Holy Spirits work.

Question 43

Frederick William III

Answer 43

• (3 August 1770 – 7 June 1840) was king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic Wars and the end of the Holy Roman Empire. Steering a careful course between France and her enemies, after a major military defeat in 1806, he eventually and reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the Befreiungskriege. Following Napoleon’s defeat he was King of Prussia during the Congress of Vienna, which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe. He was determined to unify the Protestant churches, to homogenize their liturgy, their organization and even their architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of Churches.

Question 44

Textual Criticism Method

Answer 44

• Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752)
• Wrote Greek Commentary
• Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants in either manuscripts or printed books. Scribes can make alterations when copying manuscripts by hand.[1] Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic might seek to reconstruct the original text (urtext, archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, of a document’s transcription history.[2] The objective of the textual critic’s work is a better understanding of the creation and historical transmission of texts. This understanding may lead to the production of a “critical edition” containing a scholarly curated text.

Question 45

Harless, Adolf von

Answer 45

• University of Erlangen - Published the Erlangen Edition (1826) of Luther’s works - emphasis fundamentals of Lutheranism - lets other points slide
• Adolf von Harless - Professor at Erlangen. Kicked out of Bavaria for opposing the kings edict that soldier genuflect at the host in the camp. He said Lutheranism was the true form Protestantism. J. C. K. von Hoffmann and Gott. Thomasius were also part of the Confessional revival.

Question 46

Harms, Claus

Answer 46

• Lutheran confessional renewal
• In 1817 he republished the 95 theses and added 95 of his own.
• Harms was born at Fahrstedt in Schleswig, and in his youth worked in his father’s mill. At the University of Kiel he repudiated the prevailing rationalism and under the influence of Schleiermacher became a fervent Evangelical preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel (1816).[1]
• Harms’s trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great service for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 300th anniversary of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther’s theses, ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as “the pope of our time” who “dismisses Christ from the altar and throws God’s word from the pulpit.”[1]
• As a musician, Harms sought to restore Lutheran hymns back to their original state. To this end, he researched the original texts from people such as Luther, Gerhardt, and others, hoping to find the original texts for the hymns his people were singing. In this he was mostly successful - the textual reforms he made still remain in hymnals today. He was unsuccessful, though, in restoring the tunes to their original states. The Renaissance-style tunes employed by the early Reformers had largely been smoothed out, such that the lively syncopations common to music of that era had been replaced by simple, plodding meters. His attempts met with early resistance, and he abandoned the project.

Question 47

Harnack Adolf von

Answer 47

• Historian and a higher critic. Son of Lutheran theologian. Taught at university of Berlin. Followed Ritschl. Wilhelm II intervened to make sure Harnack was allowed in to university of Berlin because Prussian church opposed it.
• 7 May 1851 – 10 June 1930) was a Baltic German Lutheran theologian and prominent church historian. He produced many religious publications from 1873 to 1912 (in which he is sometimes credited as Adolf Harnack). He was ennobled (with the addition of von to his name) in 1914.

Harnack traced the influence of Hellenistic philosophy on early Christian writing and called on Christians to question the authenticity of doctrines that arose in the early Christian church. He rejected the historicity of the Gospel of John in favor of the Synoptic Gospels, criticized the Apostles’ Creed, and promoted the Social Gospel.

In the 19th century, higher criticism flourished in Germany, establishing the historical-critical method as an academic standard for interpreting the Bible and understanding the historical Jesus (see Tübingen school). Harnack’s work is part of a reaction to Tübingen, and represents a reappraisal of tradition.

• *

Question 48

Hengstenberg, E. W.

Answer 48

• 1802-1869
• Repristination - Luther and the early Lutherans got it right so in the 19th century one must stick to that.

Question 49

Henry, Carl

Answer 49

• (January 2, 1913 – December 7, 2003) was an American evangelical Christian theologian who provided intellectual and institutional leadership to the neo-evangelical movement in the mid-to-late 20th century. His early book, The Uneasy Conscience of Modern Fundamentalism (1947), was influential in calling evangelicals to differentiate themselves from separatist fundamentalism and claim a role in influencing the wider American culture. He was involved in the creation of numerous major evangelical organizations, including the National Association of Evangelicals, Fuller Theological Seminary, Evangelical Theological Society, Christianity Today magazine (of which he was the founding editor), and the Institute for Advanced Christian Studies. The Carl F. H. Henry Institute for Evangelical Engagement at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary and the Carl F. H. Henry Center for Theological Understanding at Trinity International University seek to carry on his legacy.

Question 50

Lewis, C. S.

Answer 50

• (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer and lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College, 1925–1954) and Cambridge University (Magdalene College, 1954–1963).

Question 51

Loehe, Wilhelm

Answer 51

• (1808-72) - Tried to out Lutheranism into action. Sending missionaries, using deaconesses, confession and absolution, anointing the sick. Published a Lutheran Agenda. He thought Lutheran doctrine was right but the church needed help at applying it.
• Feels cheated by state church
• Neo-Lutheran
• New context in 19th century - must be done in a Lutheran way
• Missions - trains men for the North American field - Germans in America but also the American Indians - Frankenmuth, MI - founded by Loehe as Indian mission
• Makes use of women - one of the fathers of the deaconess program

Question 52

Machen, J. Gresham

Answer 52

• Presbyterian Church and Machen - There was a battle between liberalism and conservatism. A lot at Princeton. A big name was J. G. Machen. The seminary at Princeton stayed conservative and the denomination wanted to be more accommodating. Machen left and started a new seminary Westminster in PA and their own mission board. Machen said Liberalism was not Christianity but another religion all together. It no longer accepted traditional Christianity. Machen and company were kicked out of the Presbyterian church and formed their own version of conservative Presbyterians.
• Their message took off better in Baptist and other circles. Their was also a strong millenialism. Changed the fifth point to the second coming of Christ as opposed to the miracles of Jesus. Machen and others thought the five points should be the common ground for Christians. A new standard for authentic Christians to fight against Liberalism.

Question 53

Mott, John R.

Answer 53

• Student Christian Movement - In the late 19th century in the US and elsewhere there was a strong youth movement to evangelized. Dwight Moody held a conference to inspire world wide evangelism and the movement was born from this. 100 of 250 young attendees told Moody they would be foreign missionaries. They want back to university and spread the message and the 100 had become over 2000. These 2000 organized the “Student Volunteer Movement” in 1888. Its chief executive was John Mott. His job was recruitment. The movement spread all over the world and their goal was to evangelize the whole world in their generation. Until 1950 these students from US became 3/4 of US missionaries. Also, youth were brought together from various denominations for a common goal. They built relationships that they carried into adult life and leadership positions with ideals of ecumenicalism. These students were mostly Calvinistic with Arminian leanings.

Question 54

Niebuhr, Reinhold

Answer 54

• Said liberalism was a God without wrath brought a man without sin into a kingdom without judgment through the ministry of a Christ without a cross.

Question 55

Pius IX

Answer 55

• Pius IX (1846-78) - Was besieged by revolutionaries in 1848 and strove to maintain the papal states and papal authority in the church. In 1870 revolutionaries again took over and took everything but the Vatican. He lost the papal states. He summoned the first Vatican Council (1869-70). On its agenda was the doctrine of papal infallibility. Stripped of temporal power but of the highest religious authority. A small number left the church and formed the “old Catholics.” The decree said that the pope’s definitions of doctrine and morals are on his own, not from the curia, and they are un-reformable. This decree is only for “ex cathedra” pronouncements - thing of faith or morals for all Christians. Tradition is what the pope says it is. In 1854 he defined the immaculate conception** (Mary sinless from conception) **on his own authority even before Vatican I. Before this many great theologians said this wasn’t true like Thomas Acquinas. A big rebirth of the cult of the saints and the Virgin. In 1950 the pope defined the doctrine of the Assumption. In 1864 he promulgated the syllabus of errors. A set of 80 thesis he described as wrong. Went after everything in the modern world including the condemnation of the idea that the Roman Pontiff should align himself with the modern world. Stuck with this until the middle of the 20th century.

Question 56

Rauschenbusch, Walter

Answer 56

• (1861-1918) - Father of the social gospel. Was a Baptist. Wrote Christianity and the Social Gospel. Emphasized the communal aspect of society. The kingdom of God should be seen temporally. Repentance of social sins and working to a new social order. The duty of the Christian church to proclaim this and restructure society. His model was a socialist society.

Question 57

Ritschl, Albrecht

Answer 57

• (1822-1889) - Influenced by Schleiermacher regarding subject experience but he emphasised social consciousness. Not the heroic individual but the human community. Religion represents the experience of a group not an individual. The Bible is the written record of this communal consciousness. The center of religious consciousness is value judgements. “Jesus is God” is not a historical fact but a value judgement of the community which believes in him. Not personal redemption but bringing people moralistically into the kingdom of God which was a moralistic way of life.

Question 58

Schaeffer, Francis

Answer 58

• (January 30, 1912 – May 15, 1984[1]) was an American Evangelical Christian theologian, philosopher, and Presbyterian pastor. He is best known for establishing the L’Abri community in Switzerland. Opposed to theological modernism, Schaeffer promoted a more historic Protestant faith and a presuppositional approach to Christian apologetics, which he believed would answer the questions of the age.

Question 59

Schleiermacher, F. D. E.

Answer 59

• F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768-1864) - Father of liberalism and modern theology. Educated by the Moravian Brethren. Went to Halle. Became a popular preacher. Religion - Speeches to its Cultured Despisers says you need religion because it is an integral part in human existence especially the cultured and learned people. True religion is not moralism or reason but is from our emotion. A sense of awe in the presence of the transcendent. There is the ultimate other. I am small it is big. That is the basis of all religion. His problem is that he has no place for traditional Christian revelation. Everybody has revelation. Those who can feel and articulate it draw followers and that is where organized religions come from. The best example of this was Jesus. You have to scrape off the history to get back at the core feeling. His most work is The Christian Faith. The first of a theme of reinterpreting Christianity in the light of modern thinking. The emphasis is on the individual subjective experience of the transcendent God.

Question 60

Strauss, David

Answer 60

• Life of Jesus research. Wrote Leben Jesu regarding this. The gospels are pure myth developed by the Christian community between Jesus’ death and the second century. Started the quest for the historical Jesus.

Question 61

Wellhausen, Julius

Answer 61

• Developed the documentary theory. Four stages of development for the OT - JEDP. Religion evolved from polytheism to monotheism. Judaism emerged from other polytheistic religions.

Question 62

Wesley, Charles and John

Answer 62

• John (and Charles) Wesley 1703-91 - meet with fellow students to cultivate piety - others called them Methodists because of how they were living, following rules they believed the Bible prescribes
• Tried to plant the Church of England in Georgia - in 1735 returned in 1736
• John impressed by Moravian piety on the boat over to London
• He began attending little meetings of pious Christians - Moravians maybe
• May 24, 1738 attended little group in London - Luther’s preface to Romans was the reading - felt heart strangely warmed - assurance of sins taken away because of Christ felt in his heart - life changing moment - desired to bring this into other parts of the Church of England
• George Whitefield - John Wesley associated with him earlier - Whitefield told him to bypass church since he couldn’t get into a pulpit - go directly to the people
• Found method for getting his message across - open air preaching
• Wesley and Whitefield were joint leaders - 1741 they were going their separate waysWesley traditional Calvinist - believed in double predestination - but he became an Arminian and preached universal atonementWesley - double predestination made God an author of sin and evil
• Told Whitefield that your God is evil

Question 63

Whitefield, George

Answer 63

• 27 December [O.S. 16 December] 1714 – 30 September 1770)
• Was doing the same kind of preaching and was a better orator and very dramatic. He drew big crowds. He is the driving force of the “Great Awakening” in the US. There were some very dramatic reactions from the crowds.
• Wesley and Whitefield disagreed on this and cause a split between them. Whitefield stuck with old style Calvinism. Wesley came to an Arminian position and this became the dominant understanding in Methodism. Universal atonement and personal responsibility. Wesley thought election made God the author of sin.

Question 64

Wilberforce, William

Answer 64

• (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833)[1] was a British politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becoming a Member of Parliament for Yorkshire (1784–1812). He was independent of party. In 1785, he became an evangelical Christian, which resulted in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for social reform and progress. He was educated at St. John’s College, Cambridge.
• In 1787, he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti-slave-trade activists, including Granville Sharp, Hannah More and Charles Middleton. They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition, and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists. He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807.

Question 65

Methodism

Answer 65

• a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity teaching Wesleyan-Arminian theology, which derives from the life and teachings of John Wesley.[1] George Whitefield and John’s brother Charles Wesley were also significant early leaders in the movement. It originated as a revival movement within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate denomination after Wesley’s death. The movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond because of vigorous missionary work,[2] today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.

Question 66

Ultramontanism

Answer 66

• A movement on the Catholic church to centralize all power in the pope. Supporters of this were Francis Chateuabriand, Joseph DeMaistre, Felicite de Lamenais. Traditionalism and some liberalism from Lamenais. Popes showed themselves the great foes of modernity in religion or secular arena. Tradition and order.

Question 67

Ecumenical Movement

Answer 67

• The 20th Century
• Ecumenical Movement - Historic roots 1) evangelical missions - spread the message of Christ and not denominational differences 2) liberalism and higher criticism.

Question 68

Fundamentalism

Answer 68

• Opposing Reaction - Fundamentalism and Neo-orthodoxy (a rejection of liberalism because of its worldliness)
• Fundamentalism - Got its name from 12 booklets under the collective title of “The Fundamentals” 1910-1913. Limen and Charles Stuart bankrolled an effort by various theologians to write about the theological issues of the time. These essays would be distributed all over the world to clergy. The theologians were all American Protestants who wanted a traditional approach to Christian truth against liberalism. The Presbyterians and Princeton Seminary were a strong driving force. Five points of American Fundamentalism they saw liberalism denying 1) the doctrine of the bible - inerrancy 2) virgin birth 3) satisfaction theory of the atonement 4) bodily resurrection of Jesus 5) the miracles of Jesus.

Final

1) Identify People
2) T/F
3) Matching - ‘isms’

33 at 2 points each

4) Essay

Question 69

Liberalism

Answer 69

• Liberalism - The movement within 19th century western Christianity that is optimistic and moralistic that reduces Christianity to generalizations. Religion is not a truth system. There is something of value in Christianity of sentimental value like love of God and love your brother that must be extracted.
• Not in what you know but in what you experience - doesn’t reject what you know but what you know and feel validates you and leads you to recognize and acknowledge there is a God
• Immanence of God
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) - German idealism. Lutheran by background but accepted 18th century rationalism. In Critique of Pure Reason a person cannot know God by reason or senses. He thought ideas about God could be validated by moral sense or conscience.
• George Hegel (d. 1831) - German idealism which has the mind creating reality out of the physical world. Professor of philosophy in Berlin. Tried to create a system that explains everything. Reality is not something the mind must grasp but something the mind creates. Minds can learn because the universe is rational and can be learned. The reality of the universe is mind, rationality, and ideas.

Question 70

Higher Criticism

Answer 70

• A treatment of the Bible to understand its origin and content from human experience as we do with other literature.
• Johann Salomo Semler (German Lutheran) (1753-91)
• Pietist
• Needed reason in order to discriminate between what was good and bad - what was eternally valid - not authoritative
• OT had a history that you needed to understand to find out what was good and valid
• Separate the good from the bad
• G. E. Lessing - created major stir by editing and publishing Reimarus (after death) - early higher critical writings

Question 71

Romanticism

Answer 71

• Romanticism (also known as the Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution,[1] the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature—all components of modernity.[2] It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography,[3] education,[4] the social sciences, and the natural sciences.[5][not in citation given] It had a significant and complex effect on politics, with romantic thinkers influencing liberalism, radicalism, conservatism and nationalism.[6]
• The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe—especially that experienced in confronting the new aesthetic categories of the sublimity and beauty of nature. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, but also spontaneity as a desirable characteristic (as in the musical impromptu). In contrast to the Rationalism and Classicism of the Enlightenment, Romanticism revived medievalism[7] and elements of art and narrative perceived as authentically medieval in an attempt to escape population growth, early urban sprawl, and industrialism.

Question 72

Oxford Movement

(Tractarianism)

Newman, John Henry

Answer 72

• At Oxford a movement (The Oxford Movement) arose to check these efforts to disestablish the C of E. John Keble was a leader of this movement. They started a romantic revival to go back to medieval Protestant church. They reviewed doctrine and liturgy. Centralized high church, central episcopacy, etc. before the C of E looked more like common Protestantism. Keble preached a sermon on National Apostasy against the Whig government. Started a movement against the changes from the government and to renew along old church lines. Tracts for the Times (1833-41), inspired and partially written by John Henry Newman (1801-90), tried to stem the tide of political changes. The tracts objective was to define that the C of E was of divine origin by using the argument of apostolic succession. Romantic notion of going back to the beginning as opposed to the rational idea of basing it on true doctrine. The other thing the movement did was to support the Book of Common Prayer as the C of E’s roots back to the medieval church.

Newman was the vicar at Oxford and was enamored by the church fathers. He wanted to put the C of E as a midway between the Roman church and the Protestant church. It made the distinction with Protestants as being tied to the early fathers. The C of E was thought of Anglo-Catholicism. In the last Tract #90 he wrote that the 39 articles did not condemn the sacramental system (transubstantiation). Caused a big cry in the C of E and the tract was condemned. The C of E bishop told Newman to stop talking about this. In 1845 Newman resigned the C of E and went to the Roman church and became a priest. He eventually became a Roman Cardinal. Some of Newman’s works are Apologia pro vita sua (a defense of his own life and his move to Catholicism), A Grammar of Assent (how do we assent to religious propositions based on experience and intuition), The Idea of a University.

Question 73

Prussian Union

Answer 73

• People started talking about working to remove distinctions between different denominations. There was also a move to a united Germany and a united religion. Prussia became a driving force for unification. Eventually formed the second Reich under Wilhelm I and Bismark.
• Before this the ruling family the Hohenzollern were Reformed but the ruled over a majority of Lutheran people and churches. Frederick Wilhelm III (king of Prussia) was a Pietist Reformed and his wife was Lutheran. He thought that Lutherans and Reformed should come together against rationalism. F W III thought it would be voluntary and he only enforced it at court and in the military. F W III said you could keep to your Confession but you still had to work and commune together. This preserved theology but made it secondary. About 2/3 of the Prussian churches went along with this union. This facilitate the union the king introduced in 1821 a new Agenda (book of Worship) which he commanded to replace the agendas of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. It had elements in the Eucharistic liturgy that made concessions to Reformed. In 1830 F W III made the Union mandatory. Many didn’t go along and it sparked a Confessional revival and many Lutherans left the state church. In 1840 F W III died and F W IV took over and said the union was a mistake and permitted “free churches”. J.A.A. Grabau started such free churches in US. The free churches in Germany was independent of the state and F W IV made them legal.

Question 74

Great Awakening

Answer 74

• Evangelical Movement in America
• Called the “Great Awakening.” Methodists and Baptists became major denominations and revivalism (preaching for conversion) and evangelicalism became a mainstay of American Protestantism.
• Jonathan Edwards (1703-58) - Wanted to stay a drift toward Arminiansim. His Puritan preaching wasn’t working. He started to preach on justification by faith resulted in new enthusiasm for the old religion. Saw this as a sign of the Holy Spirits work.
• George Whitefield - Brought his message of revival to Georgia and other places. Used the press to his advantage. Ben Franklin was a friend and supporter. In 1740 he visited New England and there were large enthusiastic crowds. Very emotional itinerant preacher. Found religion in America - the congregations are dead because dead men preached to them. Other itinerant preachers were Gilbert Tennent and James Davenport.
• The idea was that after the revivalists came to town the local preachers were to take over. Thousand of people did come to organized religion and they questioned both the people who already were members and their preachers. Therefore, many separated to form their own churches. Many others reevaluated the sacraments as signs of conversion. Went from congregationalist, to separated congregationalist, to Baptists. Many of the congregationalists who stayed behind became Unitarian.
• Dwight Moody was a strong American evangelical revivalist. Spread the message around US and back to England. Evangelicalism has long and deep roots in America.

Question 75

Neo-Orthodoxy

Answer 75

• Neo-orthodoxy, in Christianity, also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology,[1][2] was a theological movement developed in the aftermath of the First World War. The movement was largely a reaction against doctrines of 19th-century liberal theology and a reevaluation of the teachings of the Reformation.[3] Karl Barth is the leading figure associated with the movement. In the U.S., Reinhold Niebuhr was a leading exponent of neo-orthodoxy.

Question 76

Social Gospel

Answer 76

• The Social Gospel was a movement in Protestantism that applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labour, inadequate labour unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. It was most prominent in the early-20th-century United States and Canada.

Question 77

Compare and contrast the Evangelical revival of the 18th century with the Enlightenment with respect to theology, leading personalities, attitudes toward each other, attitudes toward the state, and attitudes toward society and social questions.

Answer 77

• Coinsides with Enlightenment (Church of England)
• Ordinary folks - bein evangelized
• John (and Charles) Wesley
• George
• Jonathon Edwards
• Great Awakening in America
• Rationalism and Deism affected the elites
• Industrial Revolution starting 18th century
  *

Question 78

What is Romanticism and how did it affect European Christianity in the 19th century? Answer this question by referring not only to the various denominations but also by pointing to trends, ideas, attitudes, and other characteristics that were apparent in all or many of these denominations.

Answer 78

• The philosophers of the Enlightenment had forsaken the ancient philosophers long before the artists of the Enlightenment would forsake Greco-Roman styles
• But at the end of the 18th-first half of the 19th, the Romantics came along and rejected the standards of the 18th century for a new value system
• Appeals were made to feelings and nature, no longer reason and artificiality
• Beauty is natural, like a rose, it is observable and wild, this is Romantic beauty; but the Rationalists would prefer a hedge trimmed by a human or a hewn diamond, man’s reason has to influence it
• When it came to arts, things went from more collective to individual as well
• Before, rich patrons would sponsor musicians, think Mozart or Haydn, but now you get the poor man starving to death working on his masterpiece
• Romantics portrayed wild, natural things generallyBut also history came to matter, and not simply antiquity, but the histories of respective peoples, like the British or the French or whoever
• The Middle Ages will come to be revitalized in the popular mindset, as this was the history of the Brits or the French or the Germans
• This is a reaction against the previous periods’ appeals to the intellect, because that thinking got us the French Revolution and the Napoleonic bloodbaths
• When you stirred up soldiers to die for their countries against the massive invading French army, you told them to die for their children and their grandchildren, for their country, their fatherland, you don’t make logical arguments here
• Also with the hard existences brought about by the Industrial Revolution, Romanticism provided an escape from the harshness of reality

Question 79

How has Roman Catholicism changed from the age of the Reformation until today? How has it remained the same? Comment on the significance of the Council of Trent and the two Vatican councils for Catholicism. Compare and contrast Pius IX and John XXIII.

Answer 79

• John XXIII (1958-1963) - Called Vatican II (1962-1965) which was an ecumenical council. Among the theologians that attended they wanted to change some of the anti-modernism. Gave the task of renewing religion life in the Church. He called this aggiornamento. The council pushed use of the vernacular, the use of lay people in running local churches, spread out church policies about religious observances to the dioceses. Things like fish on Friday disappeared. This had a major impact on Catholics.
• Vatican II also changed the relationship of Catholics to other religions. Karl Rahner was a big proponent of ecumenicalism. The mutual excommunications between Latin and Greek churches since 1054 were removed. Catholics began to accept the conventions of the modern world. Many Catholics saw it as making the Catholic church more like the Protestant church.

Question 80

What was the significance of the Enlightenment for Christian theology? Besides any generalizations you may prefer to offer, be sure to indicate differences among Enlightened thinkers. Comment also on what you consider the long-range consequences of this era as well as on the opinions of the thinkers themselves in their own era.

Answer 80

• Now for the complete opposite of all this, the onset of the godless Enlightenment, which may be the most important topic in this course in terms of historical developmentThis movement will change the worldview not only of the leaders of Western society, but eventually all of the culture of Western society and is pretty much omnipresent here todayIn the 17th and 18th centuries, a new way of looking at the world emerged which we call “modern”As an oversimplification, pre-modern or Medieval man was spiritual; saints, angels, devils, demons, were real and affected the outcome of the lives of men, religious authorities mattered on everything from when to plant crops to the rest of daily life
• Christian believed God was interested and active in the affairs of men, of kings, of societies, of entire social systems, and that God intervened directly to make known and enforce His will
• But now a new way of thinking arrived that characterized the whole 18th century, which was scientific, naturalistic, secularist, etc., but basically believed the world, the whole universe, as we experience it make sense
• Reason can be used to figure things and identify causes without recourse to the supernatural
• This is not necessarily atheistic as the founders of this movement were certainly not atheists, but God is still seen as working regularly and routinely through secondary causes
• He is behind other things, not on the front line Himself if you will
• e.g. you don’t need to be a believer to understand the law of physics, but God still made it
• As a result, there is a lot of confidence in science to solve the epistemological problems of our age
• Nowadays, many folks talk about a view of “postmodernism” which raises skepticism about these conventions
• Yet this is all still rooted in the scientific method to grapple with the fundamental problems of human existence
• The Scientific RevolutionSome can trace this emphasis on science back to the Middle Ages, especially in Aristotelian and Scholastic thought
• Major astronomers of antiquity were primarily Ptolemy, then Aristotle, who would end up being more important to the Christian world through scholastics
• But more definitively, this scientific thinking came to the fore in Astronomy in the 16th century and moved on to Physics and then to elsewhereAstronomy was a major part of thought throughout Christian culture, and this mostly came from Astrology and horoscopes, which many bishops and humanists, notably even Philip Melanchthon, were enthusiastic aboutAstrological predictions merely came from observing the sky on a given day and noticing the constellations and whatnotThrough this method, Ptolemy long before decided the earth was the center of the universe and that all the heavenly bodies, planets and stars, out there were on the edge of a glass sphere which the angels or spirits moved
• Yet planets didn’t move quite the same way and were harder to work out, as they ended up being on their own little axis and rotated in their own little way
• His system however was convincing enough to last relatively unchallenged for many centuries
• But then came along Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish Roman Catholic priest, who posited what he saw as a much simpler theoryHe put the sun at the center
• Many think this is because Copernicus was influenced more by Platonic thought, as Plato had more emphasis on the sun or whatever
• But his theory was not completely worked out nor simpleSo a Danish Lutheran astronomer left off where Copernicus began, and his name was Tycho BraheHe had his own observatory on an island in Denmark (he was also nobility) and so with his precise instrument he could make very precise measurements
• Brahe disagreed with Copernicus however as he said the earth was still at the center
• Then a German Lutheran took Brahe’s data and better articulated Copernicus’ model, and his name was Johannes KeplerKepler put the sun at the center again and found it to be the simplest solution, which he arrived at using Ockhamist principles
• Yet this did not take theology so much as careful observation and scientific thinking
• But the Copernican-Kepler model ran into theological problems when it came to the Scriptures, specifically JoshuaJoshua says that the sun stood still and rises and falls etc.Luther thought Copernicus was nuts and Calvin didn’t think it could be reconciled with Scripture either
• Osiander however was more fond of Copernicus
• The one who really ran into opposition was the Roman Catholic Italian Galileo (1564-1642)Galileo thought that people were stupid if they just blindly accepted authority but wanted everything rationally testedHe championed Copernicus’ model, and defended it in Biblical hermeneutics
• He argued that the Bible was not a scientific textbook and from a phenomenological point of view we do see the sun moving around the earth; it’s telling what we observe, not a mathematical explanation
• “The Holy Spirit did not give us the Bible to teach us how the heavens go, but to teach us how we go to heaven” -Galileo
• He accepts the authority of Scripture and doesn’t say it has errors, he just says phenomenological not mathematical
• Roman Catholic theologians let Galileo keep doing his thing if he would deem them only hypotheses
• But later, new sheriffs came to town and brought him to the Inquisition and forced him to recant his theory on threat of death (he was old at this point)
• Thus some Jesuits thought they had prevailed over the scientific revolution, but later they would especially be consumed by it
• Methodologies of the Scientific RevolutionThere was Empiricism and RationalismFrancis Bacon (1561-1626), an Englishman, championed Empiricism in the 16th-17th centuries
• He was high in the court of Queen Elizabeth
• He argued for the scientific method, saying that observation was key and as many observations as possible had to be taken
• Then develop a hypothesis and test it
• This is inductive thinking, going from the specific to the general
• Rene Descartes, the Frenchman, championed Rationalism in the 17th century
• He is often described as the father of modern philosophy
• He refused to accept anything that cannot be proven without some kind of doubt
• He felt empiricism violated this from the get-go as our human sense can get it wrong
• The one thing he found he could not doubt was the fact that he himself was there thinking and doubting
• So his first postulation turned out to be “I think therefore I am”
• But of course he arrived at this experience through doubting, being skeptical, a fairly traditional way of doing philosophyBut certainty is better than doubting, so he will turn back to speaking of God as the alternativeYet all critical thinking in modern thought returns to the I, the it has to make sense to me or it doesn’t matter way of thinking
• No matter how objective a truth is, it doesn’t matter until the subject embraces it
• Descartes thought this way because he was a premier mathematicianHe talked about how we associate intellectual concept to geometric figures, e.g. of a number line or a parabola on a graph
• We see numbers on a page, but this is just numbers on a page unless you know what the numbers represent beyond simply characters on paper
• All these previous men were important, but they didn’t really set the movement of the Scientific Revolution in motionBut Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) brought this on a wider scope to the important people of his ageHe was trained by clergymen and sent to school at the University of Cambridge, where he would be known for optics and physics
• While Kepler could observe patterns and articulate the principles, he could not answer the question as to why this was
• But Newton posited a solution, especially through his Principia or Principles on natural scienceIncluded in this book is his Law of Gravity
• The planets revolve around the sun for the same reason you get hit on the head by an apple while sitting under an apple tree
• F = G, that is 9.8m/s^2, x m1m2/d^2, etc. scary math don’t think too hard plsPoint is he said the same logic that justifies movement on earth also operates in the heavens, so he said you could then measure the force up there
• This equation really is pretty simple, it’s only like two operations of multiplication and division
• This made it pretty exciting for people
• This man had come up with a law which God used to govern the universe and figured it out, he saw into the mind of God
• As a result of the publication and spread of this discovery and the notions that Newton used, people applied this method to other things
• Thus the Enlightenment really began here with Newton
• But Newton himself eventually quit Cambridge and desired to study more the BibleHe wanted to immerse himself in Scripture and figure it out, but unfortunately he didn’t jive with doctrines that didn’t go over well with the human intellect
• He tried to explain the Trinity and thought that someone had introduced the doctrine at some point to corrupt the original
• So although he didn’t publish this opinion much, he became a pioneer of the Deists