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PSYC 445 > test 2 > Flashcards

test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

THEORY

A

a set of propositions meant to explain a class of observations

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2
Q

hypotheses

A

expectations about what should occur if a theory is true

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3
Q

classical theory of conditioning hypotheses

A

people with phobias should be more likely than those int eh general population to have had traumatic experiences with the situations they fear

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4
Q

focus of testing

A

disproving rather than proving a theory

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5
Q

a good theory can be proven

A

FALSE

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6
Q

researchers always build a theory by examining data, making rational assumptions, and then carefully testing hte next small step - intuition is rarely involved

A

FALSE

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7
Q

hypotheses are broader and more abstract than a theory is

A

FALSE

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8
Q

most common research methods in the study of abnormal behavior

A

case study, correlational methods, and experimental methods

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9
Q

whats the most familiar method of observing human behavior

A

case study

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10
Q

case study

A

collection of detailed biographical information

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11
Q

evaluation of case study

A

excellent source of hypotheses
can provide information about novel cases or procedures
can disconfirm a relationship that was believed to be universal
cannot provide causal evidence because cannot rule out alternative hypotheses

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12
Q

what does a case study involve

A

recording detailed information about one person at a time. clinical cases

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13
Q

what does a comprehensive case study cover

A

developmental milestones, family history, medical history, educational background, jobs held, marital history, social adjustment, personality environment, and experience in therapy across the life course

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14
Q

correlation

A

study of the relationship between two or more variables, measures as they exist in nature

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15
Q

evaluation of a correlation

A

widely used because we cannot manipulate many risk variables (such as personality, trauma, or genes) or diagnoses in psychopathology research with humans, often used by epidemiologists to study the incidence, prevalence, and risk facgtors of disorders in a representative sample, often used in behavioral genetics research to stud the heritability of different mental disorders, cannot determine causalityy because fothe directionality and third variable problems

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16
Q

experiment

A

includes a manipulated independent variable, a dependent varaible, preferably at least one control group, and random assignment

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17
Q

evaluation of experiment

A

most powerful method for determining causal relationships, often used in studies of treatment, also usedin analogue studies of the risk facotrs for mental illness, single-case experimental designs also common ut can have limited external validity

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18
Q

the case study can be used to:

A

provide a rich description fora clinical phenomenon
disprove an allegedly universal hypothsis
generate hypotheses that can be tested through controlled research

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19
Q

can a case study disprove or prove a hypothesis

A

prove

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20
Q

correlation steps

A

all participants complete the same measures > measure recent life stress > measure blood pressure > correlate life stress and blood pressure

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21
Q

experiment steps

A

all participants randomly assigned > one gropu give speech in front of an audience and oen group sits quitely > measure blood pressure > compare blood presure readings of the two groups

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22
Q

what does depression tend to correlate with

A

anxiety

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23
Q

what is the correlation coeffience?

A

r, may take any value between -1.00 and 1.00 and it measures both the magnitude and the direction ofa relationships. the higher the absolute value of 4, the stronger the relationship between the two variables. fi the sign of r is positive, the two variables are said to be positively related; in other words as the values of variable X increase, those for variable Y also tend to increase. when the sign of r is negative, variables are saidt ob e negatively related

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24
Q

what do scientists use statistcal significance for

A

a more rigorous test of the importance of a relationships. it is unlikely to have occured by chance

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25
Q

when is statistical findings usually considered significant

A

if the probability unit is >.05

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26
Q

alpha level

A

probability unit p>.05

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27
Q

clinical significance

A

defined by whether a relationship between variables is large enough to matter

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28
Q

what should researchers evaluate along with whether an effect is statistically significant

A

whether or not hte effect is large enough to be meaninful in predicting or treating a clinical disorder

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29
Q

what is a critical drawback in the correlation method

A

it does not allow determination of cause-effect relationships. a large correlation between two variables tells us only that they are related to each other, but we do not know if iether variable is the cause of the other

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30
Q

directionality problem

A

present in most correlational research designs hence “correlation does not imply causation”

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31
Q

longitudinal design

A

the researcher tests whether causes are present before a disorder has developed selecting a large sample of babies, measuring the risk variables repeatedly throughout development, and following the sample for 45 years to determine who develops schizophrenia. yield of data would be small

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32
Q

cross-sectional design

A

the causes and effects are measured at hte same point in time

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33
Q

high risk method

A

overcomes this problem, because only people with above-average risk of developing schiophrenia would be studied

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34
Q

third-variable problem

A

a third factor may have produced the correlation. often labeled as confounds.

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35
Q

ex of third variable problem

A

correlation between number of churches in a city adn the crime rates. third variable=population

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36
Q

example of correlational research

A

epidemiological and behavioral and molecular genetics

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37
Q

epidemiological research focuses on three features of a disorder

A

prevelance
incidence
risk factors

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38
Q

prevalence

A

the proportion fo people with the disorder either currently or during their lifetime

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39
Q

incidence

A

the proportion of people who develop new cases of the disorder in some period, usually a year

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40
Q

risk factors

A

variables that are related to the likelihood of developing the disorder

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41
Q

the national comorbidity survey-replication

A

an example of one large-scale national survey that used structured interviews to collect information on the prevalence of several diagnoses

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42
Q

research on behavior genetics has relied on three basic methods to uncover whether a genetic predispostion for psychopathology is inherited

A

comparison of members of a family
comparison of pairs of twins
investgation of adoptees

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43
Q

the family method

A

can be used to study a genetic predisposition among members of a family because the average number of genes shared by two blood relatives is known. siblings, as well as parents and their children share 50% of their genes. 2nd degree relatives share 25% of their genes

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44
Q

index cases or probands

A

collection of a sample of persons with the diagnosis in question

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45
Q

agorophobia

A

people suffeing from a fear of being in places from which it would be hard to escape if they were to become highly anxious

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46
Q

twin method

A

both monozygotic and dizygotic twins are compared. begin with diagnosed cases and thens earch for the presence of the disorder in the other twin

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47
Q

concordance

A

when teh twins are similar diagnostically, they are said to be concordant. to the extent that a predisposition for a mental disorder can be inherited, concordance for the disorder should be greater in genetically identical MZ pairs than in DZ pairs. when the MZ concordance rate is higher than the DZ rate, the characteristic being studied is said to be heritable

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48
Q

adoptees method

A

children who were adopted and reared completely apart from their biological parents

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49
Q

cross-fostering

A

in this case, the adoptive parent has a particular disorder, not hte biological parent

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50
Q

association study

A

researchers examine the relationship between a specific allele and a trait or behavior in the population. have become much more common as technologies for measuring alleles have become more affordable

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51
Q

genome-wide assoication studies

A

examines the entire genome of a large group to identify variation between people

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52
Q

which of the following are good uses of case studies:

a. to illustrate a rare disorder or treatment
b. to show that a theory does not fit for everyone
c. to prove a model
d. to show cause and effect

A

a. to illustrate a rare disorder or treatment

b. to show that a theory does not fir for everyone

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53
Q

correlational studies involve

a. manipulating the independent variable
b. manipulating the dependent variable
c. manipulating the indepdent and dependent variable
d. none of the above

A

none of the above

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54
Q

what is the most central problem that is unique to correlational studies, regardless of how carefully a researcher designs a study

a. findings are qualitative rather than statistical
b. it is impossible to know which variable changers first
c. third variables may explain a relationship observed
d. it is impossible to know which variable changes first

A

third variables may explain a relationship observed

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55
Q

incidence refers to

a. the number of peoplew ho will develop a disorder during their lifetime
b. the number of people who report a disorder the time of an interview
c. the number of people who develop a disorder during a given tiem period
d. none of the above

A

c. the number of people who develop a disorder during a given time period

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56
Q

in behavior genetics studies, researchers can rule out the influence of parenting varaibles most carefully if they conduct studies using the

a. correlational methods
b. family method
c. twin method
d. adoptees method

A

d. adoptees method

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57
Q

experiment

A

the most powerful tool for determining causal relationships

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58
Q

experiments involve

A

random assignemnt of particpants to conditions
the manipulation fo an independent variable
and the measurement of a dependent variable

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59
Q

what is the most common form of experiment in psychopathology research

A

treatment outcome studies

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60
Q

basic features of experimental design

A

the investigator manipulates an independent variable, participants are assigned to the two conditions by random assignment, the researcher measures a dependent variable that is expected to vary with conditions of th eindependent varaible, differences between conditions ont he dependent varaible are called the experimental effect

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61
Q

internal validity

A

refers to the extent to which teh experimental effect can be attributed to the independent varaible. must include at least one control group

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62
Q

control group

A

does not receive the experimental treatment as is needed to claim that htey effects of an experiment are due to the indepdent variable

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63
Q

external validity

A

defined as the extent to which results can be generalized beyond the study

64
Q

examples of experimental research

A

treatment outcome research, analogue experiments, single-case experiments

65
Q

treatment outcome research

A

designed to address a simple question: does treatment work? the answer is ye

66
Q

a treatment study should include the following criteria

A

a clear definition fo the sample being studied, such as description of diagnoses, a clear description of the treatment being offered
as in a treatment manual
inclusion of a control or comparison treatment condition
random assignment of clients to treatment or comparison conditions
reliable an dvalid outcome measures
a large enough sample of statistical test

67
Q

randomized controlled trials (RCT)

A

studies in which clients are randomly assigned to receive active treatment or a comparison. the independent variable is the treatment and the dependent variable is the client’s outcome

68
Q

placebo

A

therapy that consists of support and encouragement but not he active ingredient of therapy under study, or a sugar pill that is described to the patient as a proben treatment

69
Q

double blind procedure

A

the psychiatrist and the patient are not told whether the patient received activfe medication ro a placebo, so as to reduce bias in evaluating outcomes

70
Q

placebo effect

A

refers to a physical or psychological improvement that is due to a patient’s expectations of help rather than to any active ingredient in a treatment

71
Q

efficacy

A

whether a treatmetn works under the purest of conditions

72
Q

effectiveness

A

how well the treatment works in the real world

73
Q

dissemination

A

process of facilitating adoption of efficacious treatments in the community most typically by offering clinicans guidelines about the best available treatments along with training on how to conduct those treatments

74
Q

in an experimental design the research manipulates the

A

the independent variable

75
Q

dr jones is interested in whether a new treatment for autism will be helpful. she recruits 30 participants, and seh randomly assigns 15 to receive drug X ad 15 to receive a placebo. after 3 weeks of treatment, she measures social engagement. in this study, the independent varaible is

A

medication condition

76
Q

dr jones is interested in whether a new treatment for autism will be helpful. she recruits 30 participants, and she randomly assigns 15 to receive drug X adn 15 to receiv ea placebo. after 3 weeks of treatment, seh measures social engagement. in thsi study, the indepedent variable is:

A

social engagement

77
Q

what are the elements of an RCT by definition

A

randomization and a comparison condition

78
Q

the goal of effectiveness studies is to determien whether a treatment works

A

under real-world conditions

79
Q

analogue experiments

A

investigators attempt to creater or observe a related phenomenon in the laboratory to allow more intensive study

80
Q

single-case experiments

A

experimenter studies hwo one person response to manipulations of the independent varaible. can have high internal validity

81
Q

specific sequence of reversal design or ABAB design

A

an initial time period (baseline) (A)
a period when a treatment is introduced (B)
reinstatement of the conditions of the baseline period (A)
reintroduction of the treatment (B)

82
Q

biggest drawback of a single-case design

A

potential lack of external validity

83
Q

meta-analysis

A

step1: thorough literature search, so that all relevant studies are identified and defines which studies will be included
step2: the effect size within each study is calculated
step3: the average effect size across studies is calculated

84
Q

single case experimental designs may lack:

A

external validity

85
Q

correlational studies may lack

A

internal validity

86
Q

the step in meta-analysis that has received extensive criticism is

A

determining which studies should be included

87
Q

two broad types of mood disorders

A

those that involve only depressive symptoms and those that involve manic symptoms (bipolar disorder)

88
Q

3 new depressive disorders proposed by the DSM V

A

mixed anxiety/depresive disorder
premenstural dysphoric disorder
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

89
Q

cardinal symptoms of depression

A

profound sadness and or an inability to experience pleasure

90
Q

major depressive disorder major features

A

5 or more depressive symptoms, including sad mood or loss of pleasure for 2 weeks

91
Q

dysthymia major features

A

low mood and atleast two other symptoms of depression at least half of the time for two yeasr

92
Q

mixed anxiety/depressive disorder major features

A

symptoms of depression adn anxiety are present, but diagnostic criteria for antoehr anxiety or depresive disorder are not met

93
Q

premenstrual dysphoric disorder major features

A

depressive or physical symptoms in the week before menses

94
Q

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

A

severe recurretn temper outbursts and persistent negative mood for at least one year beginning before age 10

95
Q

bipolar I disorder

A

at leat one lifetime manic episdoe

96
Q

bipolar II disorder

A

at least one lifetime hypomaniac episode and one major depressive disorder

97
Q

cyclothymia

A

recurretn mood changes from high to low for at least 2 years, without manic or depressive episodes

98
Q

psychomotor retardations

A

thoughts adn movements may slow

99
Q

psychomotor agitation

A

cannot sit still - they pace, fidget, and wring their hands

100
Q

major depressive disorder

A

DSM-V requires five depressive symptoms to be present for at least 2 weeks. these symptiosn must include either depressed mood or loss of interest and pleasure. additional symptoms must be present, such as changes in sleep, appetite, concentration or decision making, feelings of worthlessness, suicidality, or psychomotor agitation or retardations

101
Q

episodic disorder

A

symptoms tend to be present for a period of time and then clear. an untreated episode may stretch on for 5 months or even longer

102
Q

people with dysthymia

A

chronically depressed - more than half of the time for at least 2 years and have at least two other symptoms of depression

103
Q

mania

A

state of intense elation or irritability accompanied by other symptoms shown in teh daignostic criteria

104
Q

flight of ideas

A

dificult to interrupt and may shift rapidly from tmopic ro topic

105
Q

hypomania

A

less extreme- does nto involve significant impairment. a change in function that does not cause serious problems

106
Q

major depressive disorder is diagnosed based on at least ______ symptoms lasting at least _______ weeks

A

five, two

107
Q

approximatley ______% of people will experience major depressive disorder during their lifetime

A

16-17

108
Q

among adults, depressive symptoms must last for at least _______ years to qualify for a DSM 5 diagnosis of dysthymia

A

two

109
Q

worldwide, approximately _____ out of everyone 1,000 people will experience a manic episode during their lifetime

A

six

110
Q

bipolar I disorder is diagnosed on teh basis of manic episodes, and bipolar II disorder is diagnosed on teh basis of hypomanic episdoes

A

manic, hypomanic

111
Q

rapid cycling

A

refers to the overall pattern of episdoes over time, whereas other sybtypes describe the current episdoe of major depression or mania

112
Q

melancholic

A

episodes of depression

113
Q

reward system

A

guides pleasure, motivation,and energy inteh context of opportunities to obtain rewards

114
Q

tryptophan

A

major precursor of serotonin. deplete levels of tryptophan to lower serotonin levels

115
Q

brain structures that have been most studied in depression

A

amygdala, the subgenual anterior cingulate, the hippocampus, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

116
Q

cushings syndrome

A

causes oversecretion fo cortisol, frequently expereince depressive symptoms. high cortisol levels

117
Q

expressed emotion

A

family member’s critical or hostile comments toward or emotional overinvolvemetn with the personwith depression. high EE strongly predicts relapse in depression

118
Q

neurotocism

A

a personality trait that involves the tendency to react to events with greater-than-average negative affect, predicts the onset of depression

119
Q

becks theory

A

depression si associated with a negative triad

120
Q

negative triad

A

negative views of the self, the world, adn the future

121
Q

cognitive biases

A

tendencies to process information in certain negative ways. beck suggested that people with depression might be overly attentive to negative feedback about themselves

122
Q

hopelessness theory-major elements

A

negative life event>stable global attribution about the event and its meaning for hte future or self or other cognitive factors such as low self-esteem > hopelessness > hopelessness subtype of depression defined by specific symptoms

123
Q

attributions

A

the explanations a person forms about who a stressor has occured

124
Q

attributional style

A

leads themt o believe tha tnegative life events are due to stable and global causes are likely to become hopeless, and this hopelessness will set the stage for depression

125
Q

rumination theory

A

rumination may increase th risk of depression. rumination is defined as a tendency to repetively dwell on sad experiences and thoughts, or to chew on material again adn again

126
Q

two types of factors have been found to predict increases in manic sumptoms over time

A

reward senstiivity and sleep deprivation

127
Q

mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

A

focuses on relapse prevention after successful treatmetn for recurrent episdoes of major depresion

128
Q

behavioral couples therapy

A

when a person with depresion is also experiencing marital distress, as effective in relieving depression as indivdual CT

129
Q

psychoedcuational approaches

A

help people learn about the symptoms fo the disorder, the expected time course of symptoms, the biological and psychological triggers for symptoms, and treatment strategies

130
Q

antidepressant drugs

A

MAOIs
tricyclic antidepressants
SSRIs

131
Q

lithium

A

naturally occuring chemical elemtn, was the first mood stabilizer identified

132
Q

G-proteins

A

guanine nucleotide-binding proteins that play an important role in modulating activity in the postsynaptic cell. high levels found in patienst with mani and low levels in patienst with depression

133
Q

suicide

A

involves behaviors taht are inteded to cause death adn actuallyd o sno

134
Q

non-suicidal self injury

A

involves bhvrs that ar emeant to cause immediate bodily harm but are nto intended to cause death

135
Q

anxiety

A

apprehension over an anticipated problem

136
Q

fear

A

reaction to immediate danger

137
Q

social anxiety disorder

A

persistent, unrealistically intense fear of social situation that might involve being scrutinized by, or even just exposed to, unfamiliar people

138
Q

panic disorder

A

frequent panic attacks that are unrelated to specific situations and by worry abut having more panic attacks

139
Q

panic attack

A

sudden attack of intense apprehension, terror, and feelings of impending doom, acompanied by at least four other symptoms

140
Q

physical symptoms of a panic attack

A

labored breathing, heart palpitations, nausea, upset stomach, chest pain, feelings of choking and smothering, dizziness, lightheadedness, sweating, chills, heat sensations,and trembling

141
Q

depersonalization

A

feeling of being outside one’s body

142
Q

derealization

A

feeling of the world’s not being real

143
Q

generalized anxiety disroder

A

worry: chew on a problem and be unable to let go fo it

144
Q

subthreshold symptoms

A

symptoms that do not meet full diagnostic criteria

145
Q

mowrer’s two-factor model

A

through classical conditioning, a person leasrn to fear a netural stimulus, that is paired with an intrisically aversive stimulus
through operant conditioning a person gains relief by avoiding the CS. thsi avoidant response is maintained because it is reinforcing it

146
Q

medial prefrontal cortex

A

appears to be important in helping to regulate amygdala activity. it si involved in extinguishing fears as well as using emotion regulation strategies to control emotions

147
Q

behavioral inhibition

A

tendency to become agitated an cry when faced with novel tous, people, or stimuli

148
Q

prepared learning

A

our fear circuit may have been “prepared” by evolution to learn fear o fcertain stimuli

149
Q

locus coeruleus

A

major source of the neurotransmitter noepinephrine in the brain, and norepinephrine plays a major role in triggering sympathetic nervous system activity

150
Q

interoceptive conditioning

A

classical conditioning of panic attack in response to bodily sensations

151
Q

anxiety sensitivity index

A

measures the extent to which people respond fearfully to their bodily sensations which measure the extent to which people respond fearfully to their bodily sensations

152
Q

fear of fear hypothesis

A

agoraphobia is driven by negative thoghts about the consequences of experiencing anxiety in public

153
Q

panic control therapy

A

based on teh tendency of people with panic disorder to overreact to bodily sensations

154
Q

anxiolytics

A

drugs that reduce anxiety

155
Q

two types of medications are commonly used for th etreatment of anxiety disorders

A

benzodiazepines and antidepressants

PSYC 445 (1 decks)

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