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Ecology (BSC 385) > Test 2 > Flashcards

Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Water moves in the hydrolytic cycle via

A

fluxes between major pools

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2
Q

Abiotic factors such as ___ are important in shaping aquatic communities

A
  • temperature
  • salinity
  • light
  • pressure
  • oxygen content
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3
Q

What are lotic systems?

A

streams and rivers

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4
Q

The most valuable marine communities occur

A

near shore

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5
Q

Broad sense heritability

A

the proportion of the total variation in a phenotypic trait that is due to the genetic differences among individuals
-ranges from 0-1

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6
Q

Narrow sense heritability

A

the proportion of the total phenotypic variance that is due to additive genetic variance, Va
-ranges from 0-1

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7
Q

Stimulus response

A

a specific behavior elicited by a specific stimulus

ex: courtship displays

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8
Q

Communication

A

any action by one individual that alters the probability of a behavior of another

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9
Q

Natural selection

A

fitness refers to both an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce

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10
Q

Sexual selection

A

some traits may improve reproductive success while reducing survival

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11
Q

How can you tell if an organism is male or female?

A

females produce larger gametes than males

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12
Q

Monogamy

A

when a male mates with a single female

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13
Q

What is serial monogamy?

A

a monogamous relationship that lasts for a single breeding season

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14
Q

Polygyny

A

when a male mates with more than one female during a breeding season

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15
Q

Polyandry

A

females mate with more than one male during a breeding season

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16
Q

Inclusive fitness

A

the relative ability to transfer one’s genes, or copies of them, into the next generation

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17
Q

What are the equations for broad sense heritability?

A 
H^2 = Vg/Vp
Vp = Vg + Ve
-Vg: genetic variation among indiv.
-Ve: environmental variation
-Vp: total phenotypic variation
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18
Q

What are the equations for narrow sense sense heritability?

A

1) h^2 = Va/Va+Vd+Ve
-Va: variation due to additive genetic differences between indiv.
-Vd: the effect of dominance (the masking of recessive genes by dominant ones)
-Ve: environmental variation
2) “the breeder’s equation”
R = h^2s
-s: selection coefficient
-R: change in the trait over time
-h^2: heritability

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19
Q

Behaviors are a result of ___ as well as ___

A

genetic makeup; environment and experience as an individual

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20
Q

Traits with high heritability respond to natural selection ___ than traits with low heritability

A

more rapidly

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21
Q

If h^2 is high, the rate of evolution is ___

A

greater

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22
Q

Females are limited by ___ and ___, but not ___

A
  • number of eggs they can make and other investments

- NOT MATES

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23
Q

Female fitness increases as a function of the quality of the progeny, making ___ more important

A

mate choice

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24
Q

Males are limited by ___, not ___

A
  • number of mates

- NOT SPERM

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25
Q

Male fitness increases with ___

A

number of females he inseminates

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26
Q

When there is competition for mates, sexual selection will be

A

stronger

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27
Q

Which sex is normally competitive?

A

males

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28
Q

Which sex is normally choosy?

A

females

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29
Q

What does Bateman’s principle say?

A
  • because males compete, they experience greater variation in reproductive success than females
  • leads to a strong selection on males
  • sexual selection and asexual dimorphism are tightly related
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30
Q

What are the 3 ways that males compete?

A
  • combat
  • post copulatory competition
  • infanticide
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31
Q

What is combat?

A

direct male to male competition; females may be oblivious

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32
Q

What is post copulatory competition?

A

When females mate with more than one male

  • make lots of sperm
  • males guard their mates
  • add pheromones to make females less attractive
  • prolonged copulation
  • block next guy’s sperm
  • remove previous sperm
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33
Q

What is infanticide?

A

killing another male’s offspring to make females receptive to mating sooner and avoids investment in non-related offspring
-mostly in mammals

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34
Q

What is the balance hypothesis?

A

states that male traits are exaggerated by female choice until their overall fitness cost is too high

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35
Q

What is the “truth in advertising” hypothesis?

A

states that elaborate phenotypic traits of males are an indicator of overall fitness
-helps females choose a superior male, thereby increasing the quality of her progeny

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36
Q

The mating system involves

A
  • the number of mates an individual copulates with during mating season
  • the relative contribution of males and females to parental care
  • how long the relationship between males and females lasts
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37
Q

What is characteristic of social monogamy?

A
  • female bonds with 1 male

- male and female share in parental care

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38
Q

What is characteristic of genetic monogamy?

A
  • all progeny of a socially monogamous pair is produced by the male and female of that pair
  • rare
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39
Q

What are the ecological determinants of monogamy?

A
  • if successful rearing of the young requires both parents, monogamy is advantageous for both sexes
  • if reproduction is highly synchronous
  • most common type of mating system in passerine birds
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40
Q

What are ecological determinants of polygyny?

A

-spatial distribution of females

spatial distribution of other critical resources

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41
Q

What are behavioral determinants of polygyny?

A
  • lek-mating species
  • males display together on traditional sites known as leks
  • females choose their mate based on these displays
  • a few males obtain the majority of copulations
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42
Q

What are the ecological determinants for polyandry?

A
  • fitness benefit to females
  • nuptial gifts from male to female
  • reduces the probability of mating with a poor quality male
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43
Q

What are the fundamental components of social systems?

A
  • group size/composition
  • degree of cooperation b/w individuals
  • mating system
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44
Q

Group size and distribution depend on

A
  • abundance
  • distribution
  • types of resources
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45
Q

Cooperation among individuals includes

A
  • cooperative hunting in wolves
  • shared care of the young
  • altruistic behaviors
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46
Q

What is Hamilton’s rule?

A

states that genes for altruism can increase in frequency if rB - C > 0

  • r: coefficient of the relationship of the altruist
  • B: fitness benefit to the recipient
  • C: fitness cost to the altruist
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47
Q

What is a stimulus-response?

A

specific behavior elicited by a specific stimulus

-behavioral response is invariant

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48
Q

What is an example of a stimulus-response?

A

Courtship displays

-if each individual does not perform the prescribed behavior, courtship breaks down and mating doesn’t occur

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49
Q

What are commonly used forms of communication?

A
  • visual
  • auditory
  • olfactory
  • tactile signals
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50
Q

What determines the choice of what type of signal to use?

A

the nature of the communication and the physical properties of the environment

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51
Q

What is sexual dimorphism?

A

differences in size, coloration, or morphology between males and females

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52
Q

Sexual dimorphism suggest that

A

different selective forces operate on males and females

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53
Q

How do females bear direct anatomical, physiological, and energetic costs of reproduction?

A
  • lay and incubate eggs or carry them to term internally
  • there is a point at which female fitness can’t increase by producing more young
  • her fitness increases as a function of the quality of young she produces
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54
Q

Male contribution, sperm, can be produced in great numbers so male fitness increases with

A

the number of females he inseminates

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55
Q

What does Bateman’s principle suggest?

A

males experience greater variance in reproductive success than females

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56
Q

Opportunity for selection to affect one sex increases the degree of

A

sexual dimorphism

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57
Q

What is female choice?

A

a mechanism of sexual selection in which females choose mates on the basis of their physical or behavioral characteristics

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58
Q

What is male to male competition?

A

a form of sexual selection in which males compete with one another directly or indirectly for access to females

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59
Q

What is the balance hypothesis?

A

states that male traits are exaggerated by female choice until their overall fitness cost is too high
-natural and sexual selection gradually come to a balance

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60
Q

What is the “truth in advertising” hypothesis?

A

suggests that elaborate physical traits of males are an indicator of overall fitness
-explains the elaboration of the traits important to females that don’t contribute to male fitness

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61
Q

What is a mating system?

A

the length of the relationships between males and females, the relative contributions of males and females to parental care, and the number of mates an individual copulates with

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62
Q

What are the advantages of female promiscuity?

A
  • increases genetic diversity of offspring
  • ensure the female has opportunity to mate with a number of males with high fitness or to increase the probability that at least one male is fertile
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63
Q

What is the most common relationship between males and females?

A

polygyny

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64
Q

What is female defense polygyny?

A

a form of polygyny that occurs when groups of females are guarded by males

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65
Q

What does resource defense polygyny suggest?

A

if critical resources are distributed such that males can defend them, the males may obtain a territory that attracts multiple females

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66
Q

Which is the rarest mating system?

A

polyandry

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67
Q

What are the direct benefits of polyandry to females?

A
  • nuptial gifts provided by males

* energy or nutrient rich resources that increase the female’s reproductive success

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68
Q

What are the indirect benefits of polyandry to females?

A

superior male genes

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69
Q

What is outcrossing?

A

a plant mating system in which mating occurs between different individuals

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70
Q

What is autogamy?

A

a plant mating system in which individuals self fertilize

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71
Q

What is apomixis?

A

a plant mating system in which individuals reproduce asexually

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72
Q

What is degree of self-incompatibility?

A

a phenomenon in plants in which individuals can’t self-fertilize

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73
Q

What is protogynous development?

A

a pattern of development in plants in which female parts of the flower develop before male parts

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74
Q

What is protandry?

A

a developmental phenomenon in which the male parts of the flow mature before the female parts

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75
Q

What is a habitat?

A

the abiotic and biotic characteristics of the place where an organism lives

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76
Q

What is a microhabitat?

A

the subset of the habitat that differs in important abiotic and biotic characteristics
-ex: caribou choose different microhabitats within the tundra during different seasons

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77
Q

What is a home range?

A

the portion of the habitat used by an individual on a daily or seasonal basis

78
Q

What is territoriality?

A

exclusive use of a portion of the home range

79
Q

What determines the size of a territory?

A

resources of importance and their spatial distribution

80
Q

What is dispersal?

A

the one-way movement of an individual from the natal area

81
Q

What is the natal area of an individual?

A

the place where the individual was born

82
Q

When an organism is described as philopatric, what does that mean?

A

it means they do not disperse

83
Q

What is saturation dispersal?

A

dispersal of individuals that occurs when the habitat is filled or resources are limiting

84
Q

What is pre-saturation dispersal?

A

dispersal of individuals that occurs before the habitat is filled or resources are limiting

85
Q

What is inbreeding depression?

A

a decrease in fitness due to mating among related individuals

86
Q

What is altruistic behaviors?

A

any behavior that increases fitness of others at the expense of the altruist’s fitness

87
Q

What is an example of an altruistic behavior?

A

alarm calling behavior of Belding’s ground squirrels

88
Q

Mating systems are shaped by

A

pattern of resource distribution

89
Q

What is eusocial?

A

describes a complex social system in which there is divisions of labor or castes, a high level of cooperation, and sometimes altruism

90
Q

Coarse-grained environmental variation

A

patch size is larger than the organism’s mobility (an organism experiences few environments over its lifetime)

91
Q

Fine-grained environmental variation

A

patch size is smaller than the organism’s mobility range, an organism is exposed to many environments

92
Q

Biological species

A

in sexually reproducing organisms, a species is a group of populations that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

93
Q

Ecotype

A

genetically distinct populations adapted to local environment via natural selection

94
Q

Subspecies/race

A

a local, distinct form that is distinctly different in phenotypes (may rarely interbreed)

95
Q

Phenotypic plasticity

A

development of different phenotypes in different environments by the same genotype

96
Q

Common garden experiments

A

individuals with different phenotypes in the field are grown under similar conditions

97
Q

Muller’s ratchet

A

process by which the genomes of an asexual population accumulate deleterious mutations in an irreversible manner

98
Q

Population bottlenecks

A

persistence of drift and inbreeding AFTER population re-expansion, caused by burden of ongoing homozygosity and expression of deleterious alleles

99
Q

Effective population size

A

the size of “an ideal population” of organisms (ideal refers to a hypothetical population in a Hardy-Weinberg sense with constant population size, equal sex ratio, and no immigration, emigration, mutation, or selection) that would experience the effects of drift or inbreeding to the same degree as the population we are studying

100
Q

Ecological effects of temporal variation depend on

A
  • amplitude of the change
  • speed of the change
  • predictability
101
Q

What give rise to ecotypes?

A

genetically determined differences between populations inhabiting different environments

102
Q

What give rise to phenotypic plasticity?

A

non-genetic changes

103
Q

What are the factors that favor the evolution of ecotypes?

A
  • existence of genetic variation in the trait
  • intensity of natural selection
  • geographical barriers to gene flow
104
Q

What does Fischer’s fundamental theorem suggest?

A

the rate at which the mean fitness of a population increases by natural selection is equal to the additive genetic variation in fitness (i.e., the combined effects of all the different genes that affect fitness)

105
Q

What is a reaction norm?

A

the range of all possible phenotypes that one genotype can produce

106
Q

Spatially (and temporally) fine-grained environments favor ___ ___ because it is the optimal response under variable ecological conditions

A

phenotypic plasticity

107
Q

Coarse-grained environments lead to more predictable selective pressures that favor

A

fixed genetic adaptations

108
Q

In common garden experiments, if the field phenotypes persist in the common garden

A

the differences among populations are likely genetically controlled

109
Q

If the phenotypes in the common garden are similar, the variation in the field is due to

A

phenotypic plasticity

110
Q

What is the ultimate source of all genetic mutation?

A

mutations

111
Q

Once mutations arise, their frequencies and combinations change due to

A
  • meiosis
  • natural selection
  • genetic drift
  • breeding system
112
Q

What are mechanisms that decrease genetic variation?

A
  • stabilizing selection
  • directional selection
  • inbreeding
  • genetic drift
113
Q

What are mechanisms that increase or maintain genetic variation?

A
  • overdominant selection (when a heterozygotes’ phenotype different than either homozygous phenotype and heterozygotes have higher fitness)
  • disruptive selection
  • negative frequency-dependent selection (fitness depends on whether genotype is rare/common, highest fitness when your genotype is rare)
  • outcrossing (breeding with distantly related individuals)
  • migration/gene flow
114
Q

What is the two fold cost of sex?

A

asexual individuals pass on twice as many genes to their offspring as sexual individuals

115
Q

What is an evolutionary stable strategy?

A

an adaptation that increases in frequency when rare

116
Q

Is sex an evolutionary stable strategy?

A

no

117
Q

Red Queen Hypothesis

A

selection in a constantly changing environment favors sex

118
Q

Wright’s F-statistic

A

F(IT) = F(IS) + F(ST)

  • F(IT): genetic variation
  • F(IS): variation within populations
  • F(ST): variation between populations
119
Q

The higher the value of F(ST), the larger the proportion of the total genetic variation is due to

A

the differences among populations

120
Q

Spatial variation in the environment is the result of

A

discontinuities in physical and biological factors from place to place

121
Q

Infraspecific variation

A

genetic or phenotypic variation within a species

122
Q

Magnitude of the differences between patches determines

A

the selective pressure exerted on the organism

123
Q

What are ecotones?

A

boundaries between habitat types

124
Q

The degree to which patches are isolated determines

A

the potential adaptive response of the organism

125
Q

Temporal change occurs

A

over many time scales

126
Q

Unpredictability poses a ___ than a constant environment

A

greater challenge

127
Q

What is an essential feature of infraspecific variation?

A

that the phenotype varies with the patterns of environmental variation

128
Q

What are ecotypes?

A

genetically distinct populations adapted to the local environmental conditions

129
Q

The amount of genetic variation in the population may limit

A

the adaptive process

130
Q

Fischer’s Fundamental Theorem

A

the principle that the rate of change in fitness by natural selection is equal to the additive genetic variance in the population

131
Q

Additive genetic variation

A

the combined effects of all the different genes that affect a trait

132
Q

Ecotypic differentiation is more likely to occur if the spatial variation in the environment also includes

A

barriers to gene flow among populations

133
Q

What is the difference between phenotypic difference and phenotypic plasticity?

A

phenotypic difference: arise due to the direct detrimental effect of the environment
phenotypic plasticity: when the phenotype shifts in adaptive ways in different environments

134
Q

Adaptive phenotypic plasticity requires a mechanism that not only detects ___ but also alters the ___ so as to produce the optimal phenotype

A

environmental change; developmental pathways

135
Q

Why is phenotypic plasticity both advantageous and disadvantageous?

A

the organism can respond to its environment, but the developmental complexity and energetic requirements for phenotypic changes may be a burden

136
Q

What determines whether the adaptive response to the environment is genetic or phenotypic?

A

temporal and spatial pattern of variation in the environment

137
Q

Plasticity is advantageous if the pattern of temporal variation includes

A

rapid shifts or highly unpredictable conditions for which a genetic response would be too slow

138
Q

How does disruptive selection maintain genetic variation in the population?

A

more than one phenotype is adaptive and selection ensures that each persists

139
Q

How does frequency-dependent selection maintain variation?

A

by favoring rare genes

140
Q

How does stabilizing selection decrease variation?

A

by eliminating extreme phenotypes and their genotypes

141
Q

How does directional selection decrease variation?

A

by favoring phenotypes in one tail of the bell curve and eliminating those at the other extreme

142
Q

What is genetic similarity?

A

the measure of the proportion of alleles shared by two

143
Q

Demography

A

the quantitative description of the structure of populations
-includes size, age structure, sex ratios, and growth rate

144
Q

Ecological population

A

a group of individuals of a species that occupy a particular area, its boundaries are determined by an ecologically relevant change in the environment

145
Q

Evolutionary population

A

a local group of individuals that mate at random (a deme), its boundaries are determined by the barriers to mating and gene flow

146
Q

Connectivity

A

the link between 2 or more populations by dispersal of individuals

147
Q

Abundance, N(t)

A

number of individuals in a population (NOT number of species in a community)

148
Q

Density

A

number of individuals per unit area or volume

149
Q

Genet

A

a genetically distinct individual or clonal colony in a plant population

150
Q

Ramet

A

a physiologically distinct individual within a plant genet

151
Q

Unitary organism

A

exist as separate and distinct individuals

152
Q

Modular organisms

A

develop repetitive patterns of growth of body parts

153
Q

Cohort life table

A

follows a group of individuals over time

154
Q

Static life table

A

based on a sample of the population at one moment in time

155
Q

Survivorship curve

A

graphically represents the pattern of age-specific survival

156
Q

Life expectancy (Ex)

A

the mean expectation for further life of an individual of age x

157
Q

Life span

A

the max number of years and individual in the population could potentially live

158
Q

Net reproductive rate (r0)

A

the average number of offspring produced by an individual during their lifetime

159
Q

Lincoln (mark-recapture) method

A

N=N1*N2/Nm
N: total population size
N1: number of individuals marked and released in the population at time T1
N2: number of individuals captured in the population at time T2
Nm: number of marked individuals at time T2

160
Q

Poisson distribution

A

Px=a^xe^-a/X!
x: number of occurrences
a: mean number of occurrences per grid square
e: base of the natural log
X!: x factorial; this means we multiply the value of x times the values of x-1,x-2,x-3 and so on until the remaining term is 1

161
Q

Life expectancy

A

Lx=n(x)+n(x+1)/2
Tx=L(x)+L(x+1)+L(x+2)+…+L(infinity)
e(x)=Tx/n(x)

162
Q

Net reproductive rate (R0)

A
  • b(x):expected reproductive output for an individual of age x
  • l(x)b(x): realized population determined by probability an individual will live to age x
  • R(0): sum l(x)b(x)
163
Q

For exponentially growing populations with discrete generations

A

N(t)=R(0)+N(0)

-N(0): number of individuals at time 0 (now)

164
Q

For exponentially growing populations with overlapping generations

A

r: instantaneous growth rate, or intrinsic rate of increase
-r=b(0)-d(0)
N(t)=N(0)e^rt

165
Q

Population boundaries determined by

A
  • number of individuals
  • spatial distribution
  • reproductive rate
  • isolation vs connectivity
166
Q

What are ways to quantify population size?

A
  • total census
  • for large animals, trees, humans
  • lincoln (mark-recapture) methods
  • for small, mobile organisms
  • Quadrat or transect methods
  • for sessile or relatively immobile organisms
  • indirect, relative measure of the abundance, but can be scaled up
167
Q

What is random distribution?

A

individuals distributed without regard to others

-neutral or little interaction between individuals and between individuals and local environment

168
Q

What is clumped distribution?

A

individuals in discrete groups, positive interactions

-attraction between individuals or to a common reassurance or little dispersal far from parent

169
Q

What is regular distribution?

A

individuals maintain min distance between themselves and their neighbors
-antagonistic interactions between individuals or local depletion of resources

170
Q

Poisson distribution is a

A

random distribution

171
Q

Type 1 survivorship

A

low survival in young ages, then high survival until old age, when mortality increases rapidly
-many mammals, including humans

172
Q

Type 2 survivorship

A

survivorship is constant across all ages

-common in small mammals, lizards, birds

173
Q

Type 3 survivorship

A

early mortality is very high, but decreases with older ages

-many marine fishes, invertebrates, and plants

174
Q

If R(0) > 1,

A

the population is increasing

175
Q

If R(0)=1,

A

the population size is stable

176
Q

If R(0) < 1,

A

the population is decreasing

177
Q

1 degree sex ratio

A

sex ratio at fertilization

178
Q

2 degree sex ratio

A

sex ration at birth or hatching

179
Q

3 degree sex ratio

A

sex ratio at sexual maturity

180
Q

4 degree sex ratio

A

sex ratio of the adult population

181
Q

Populations change in time and space by

A
  • immigration to the population (I)
  • emigration from the population (E)
  • additions to the population via births (B)
  • losses from the population via deaths (D)
182
Q

For exponentially growing populations with overlapping generations, if r > 0,

A

population declines

183
Q

For exponentially growing populations with overlapping generations, if r = 0,

A

population is stable

184
Q

For exponentially growing populations with overlapping generations, if r < 0,

A

population grows

185
Q

A transition matrix tracks

A
  • the probabilities of transition from one age to another

- the corresponding reproductive output that accumulates in the process

186
Q

Which of the following is not characteristic of interspecific competition?

A

The limiting resource does not change over time

187
Q

According to the competitive exclusion principle

A

Two species can’t exist on the same limiting resource

188
Q

Character displacement

A

Is the result of selection to decrease niche overlap

189
Q

Which survivorship curve best fits a population with a large number of offspring per parent living close to carrying capacity?

A

Type 3

190
Q

In Lotka- Volterra state-space plots an isocline

A

Determines where population growth is 0

191
Q

A niche describes

A

The environmental requirements of a species

Ecology (BSC 385) (5 decks)

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