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test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the Cell Theory?

A

Schwann and Schleiden concluded that all organic beings are composed of individual cells which are independent of one another. They thought neurons were the exception because they didn’t realize that the cells and their projections were indeed cells.

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2
Q

What did Camillo Golgi develop?

A

A way to stain a neuron, which allowed for viewing the entire neuron. Gigi found that the cells appeared to be connected, which violated the cell theory.

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3
Q

What is Cajal’s Neuron Doctrine?

A

It states that each neuron is a separate cell and a fundamental building block of the nervous system.

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4
Q

What is dynamic polarization of neurons?

A

The theory that information flows only one way through a neuron, from dendrites to soma to axons.

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5
Q

What are the four types of molecules common to all living cells?

A

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Amino Acids, Nucleic Acids.

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6
Q

What is the function of carbohydrates in cells?

A

They serve as simple sugars and energy storage molecules like glycogen(chains of small molecules). This glycogen is stored until needed as energy to power cellular function.

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7
Q

What is the role of lipids in cells?

A

These are your fats. They form a* bilipid layer membrane that makes up the cell membrane*, and they make up a high percentage of myelin. The bilipid layer is semipermeable, and the cell membrane creates a boundary between the outside of the cell and the inside of the cell.

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8
Q

What are amino acids?

A

Compounds that combine to form proteins and can act as neurotransmitters. It is an organic compound made up of amine and carbocylic. Some amino acids work as excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Globular and Enzymes.

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9
Q

Globular amino acid

A

located in the cell membrane and act as gates, allowing some material in or out of the cell.

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10
Q

Enzyme amino acid

A

perform various chemical actions. One of those actions includes the breakdown of unneeded neurotransmitters in the synapses.

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11
Q

What are nucleic acids? (nucleotides)

A

Large molecular chains in the cell’s nucleus, important for DNA(make up our genetic code) and RNA (mechanism for building our bodies’ structure).

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12
Q

cell membrane?

A

The cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane, which contains a double layer of lipid molecules studded with globular proteins. Each lipid molecule in the membrane is chemically bonded to a protein molecule, creating a lipoprotein, forming a barrier between intracellular and extracellular environments.

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13
Q

Globular proteins and the cell membrane?

A

The membrane is studded with globular proteins; Some of them extend from the outside of the cell of the membrane to the cell’s contents(cytoplasm).** GP are channels in the membrane that permit chemicals to go in and out of the cell.** This is how the inside and outside contents of the cell communicate.

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14
Q

Ions

A

molecules that carry either a positive or a negative charge that pass through the channels.

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15
Q

What are neurons? (1 cell of the NS)

A

Cells with specialized projections that communicate information throughout the body by way of electrode chemical process.

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16
Q

What are glial cells? (2 cell of the NS)

A

Support cells that assist and facilitate neurons. The different types of glial cells are astrocytes, oligodendroglia, Schwann cells, microglia, and satellite cells

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17
Q

What is the function of astrocytes?

A

They control the ionic environment of the extracellular fluid of neuronal cells.

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18
Q

What do oligodendroglia do?

A

They coat axons with myelin in the CNS.

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19
Q

What is the role of Schwann cells?

A

They coat axons with myelin in the PNS.

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20
Q

What do microglia do?

A

CNS cells that function as part of the immune system and assist in repair after brain or spinal cord damage by producing a scar tissue-like substance at the site of injury. There by reducing damage to surrounding neurons.

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21
Q

Satellite cells

A

surround and help nourish neurons. They maintain the neuronal environment by taking up neurotransmitters.

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22
Q

Soma

A

contains the nucleus and organelles; outside the nucleus is the cytoplasm

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23
Q

Neurons are classified by number of neuritis (projections)……

A
  • unipolar neuron: sensory
  • bipolar neuron: located in structures involved with special senses
  • multipolar motor neuron: helps with the somatic NS to create movement
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24
Q

Types of projections of the neurons

A
  1. Dendrites- receive signals and pass them toward the cell body, and subsequently to the axons, offering an expanded surface area for communication between neurons to occur
  2. Axons: conduct signals away from he cell body, they branch at a right angle from the axon COLLATERAL. The connection of the soma and axon is called the AXON HILLOCK.
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25
Neurons can also be classified by their....
connections (sensory connections, motor connections, and interneurons)
26
What is a synapse?
The point of connection between a neuron and another neuron, gland, or muscle. Within the terminal buttons are terminal vesicles (sacs) that house neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters pass through the synaptic cleft to connect to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane.
27
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit messages across the synaptic cleft.
28
For something to be a neurotransmitter, 3 conditions must be met:
1. must be in the presynaptic membrane 2. must be released to a presynaptic depolarization 3. there must be specific postsynaptic receptors to receive it
29
The two functions of a neurotransmitter are....
- they mediate **neural impulse transmission between neurons** by starting or stopping APs - they modulate (make faster, slower, or just cont.) **synaptic communication** of neurons
30
What is acetylcholine?
A neurotransmitter of the **PNS** neuromuscular junction, and it is involved in muscle contraction. Helps regulate alertness, memory, attention, and learning. The neurons that release ACh are called CHOLINERGIC NEURONS. Degeneration of neurons-Alzheimer patients
31
What is glutamate?
The major **excitatory** neurotransmitter in the **CNS**, associated with learning and memory.
32
What is GABA?
The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, controls information flow in the CNS. Involved in sleep-wake cycles and linked to depression and insomnia.
33
What is dopamine?
involved in motor control and emotions (rewards and addictions). Involved in 3 CNS pathways, and damage to any of these pathways results in specific disorders (Parkinson's and Schizophrenia). Areas of the brain included in this: midbrain, basal ganglia, amygdala, and the cerebral cortex
34
Epiniephrine
Adrenaline. Helps regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing. Fight or flight. Originate in the brainstem and project to the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
35
Norepinephrine
involved in** attention, mood, and sleep-wake cycles**, and are associated with ADD, narcolepsy, and mood disorders
36
Two phases of neuron communication....
- electrical phase (electrical impulse; involves dendrites, soma, and axon) - chemical phase: involves neurotransmitters and synaptic cleft
37
The two important concepts regarding neuron function
1. Transport: active(requires energy to move something) and passive(no energy required) 2. Gradient- Imbalance, because the cell membrane is semi-permeable, only some substances are allowed in, creating an imbalance CONCENTRATION GRADIENT and CHARGE GRADIENT(ions)
38
At rest what is the neuon?
The neuron is polarized, so there is an imbalance of sodium and potassium; there is more sodium outside the cell than inside, and more potassium inside the cell (concentration gradient)
39
The interior of the cell is electrically more _________ than the outside of the cell.
negative
40
Chemical firing of the neuron
When an event affects the neuron's membrane, it is called a perturbation; these perturbations are either going to excite or inhibit the cell. Chemical transmission occurs at the synapse, so when neurotransmitters attach to the receptors, the gates at the nodes of Ranvier open. The sodium ions are rapidly and passively transported, which triggers the AP, and a wave is propagated down the axon (depolarization).
41
The reloading of the neuron
After the impulse is fired, the sodium gates close and other gates open to allow positively charged K to flow out of the neuron, stopping the depolarization; the K is pumped out slowly using active transport, creating an imbalance again
42
What is the All or None Principle?
In order for a neuron to fire, a change of 15 mV must occur inside the neuron. when a threshold of -55 mV is reached, then the neuron will fire at a fixed strength. If that threshold is not reached, it won't fire.
43
What is intellectual disability?
Sub-average intellectual functioning with deficits in adaptive behavior, occurring during the developmental period. Associated with a smaller number of dendritic spines, factors can be environmental or biological.
44
What are brain tumors?
AKA neoplasms. Abnormal cell masses that replicate themselves. Can be benign or malignant, named based on the type of cell from which they originate. There is a primary tumor (one that originates in the brain) and a metastatic tumor (one that originated somewhere else and spreads). Symptoms: headaches, seizures, personality change, motor and/or sensory impairment.
45
What is ALS?
A progressive degenerative motor neuron disease affecting both upper and lower motor neurons. Genetics plays 10% of cases, 90% of cases have unknown origin. Occurs more in men than women, usually between the ages 40-60. Symptoms are progressive weakness that often begins in the hands, feet, or mouth, and respiratory failure is common cause of death.
46
What is MS?
immune system attacks the myelin sheath around axons, impairing communication to the muscles. Symptoms: numbness, tingling, speech and swallowing problems
47
What is myasthenia gravis?
A progressive autoimmune disease that blocks acetylcholine receptors, resulting in muscle weakness. Symptoms: ptosis (drooping eyelids)
48
What is Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
A rapid demyelinating disease of the PNS caused by an autoimmune response to Schwann cells, and when those cells are damaged, they cannot produce myelin or coat with myelin in the PNS. Symptoms: paralysis, causes respiratory distress
49
What are the symptoms of Myasthenia Gravis?
Symptoms include ptosis (drooping eyelids).
50
How can Myasthenia Gravis be treated?
Drug therapy with steroids can reduce severity and symptoms.
51
What is the maximum impact timeline for Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
Maximum impact occurs at 1 month, after which the patient partially or fully recovers.
52
What is the spinal cord?
The transmission link between the brain and body, extending from the foramen magnum of the medulla and ending in the lumbar region. -Bi-directional pathway: sensory goes up and motor goes down from the brain to organs and muscles, wrapped in 3 meningeal layers, the CSF extends the entire length and is continuous with the 4th ventricle of the medulla
53
What is the external organization of the spinal cord?
The spinal cord has 5 regions: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal.
54
What are spinal nerves?
Nerves that emerge from the spinal cord and innervate the body, formed by the merging of dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) roots.
55
What are the two types of nerve fibers?
General somatic and general visceral fibers.
56
What do general somatic efferent fibers do?
They carry motor information to skeletal muscles.
57
What do general visceral efferent fibers do?
They carry motor information to smooth muscle, heart, and glands.
58
What do general somatic afferent fibers do?
They carry sensory information from the skin.
59
What do general visceral afferent fibers do?
They carry sensory information from the lungs and digestive tract.
60
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
61
What is the function of dorsal and ventral rami?
They carry motor and sensory fibers and form plexuses that branch off to insert into muscles.
62
Dorsal Ramus
carries motor and sensory information to and from the posterior/dorsal part of the body; serves sensory and motor functions of the posterior trunk (skin and back muscles)
63
Ventral Ramus
carries motor and sensory to and from the anterior/lateral part of the body; the ventral rami carry a greater number of fibers and innervate a larger area of the body than those originating from t1 through t12 . Ventral rami merge with adjacent ventral rami to form plexuses (an interjoining network of nerves). This ensures substantial overlap in sensory and motor innervation to skin and muscles
64
What is the cervical plexus?
Formed by C1-C4, it supplies muscles and skin of the head, neck, part of the shoulders, and diaphragm. Pathology here results in cervical pain and respiratory palsy
65
What is the brachial plexus?
Contains fibers from C5-C8 and supplies the shoulders and upper limbs. Pathology here is sensory loss/weakness in arms as well as reflex loss
66
What is the lumbar plexus?
Contains fibers from L1-L4 and supplies part of the abdominal wall and lower limbs. Pathology here crates inability to extend the leg and loss of sensation of lower leg
67
What is the sacral plexus?
Contains spinal division segments from L4-S4 and supplies the buttocks and lower limbs. Pathology here results in foot drop and pain extending down from buttocks to the leg
68
Spinal regulation for inhalation
A contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases intrathoracic volume, triggering inhalation
69
Spinal regulation for exhalation
Internal intercostal muscles depress the ribs and abdominal muscles increase intrabdominal pressure to initiate exhalation
70
Motor nuclei from anterior horns of ____ and _____ form the ______ _______, which innervates the _______ (the primary muscle of inspiration.
C3, C4, phrenic nerve, diaphragm
71
The efferents to the intercostals exit from ____-_____. Motor nuclei from ______-_____ innervate abdominal muscles.
T1-T12, T6-T12
72
What happens when there is damage to respiratory nerves?
A patient with a spinal lesion above C4 may experience complete paralysis of respiratory muscles.
73
What is the internal organization of the spinal cord?
It has a gray butterfly shape surrounded by white matter, with the dorsal horn in the upper wing and ventral horn in the lower wing. The white matter is divided in half by the median fissure.
74
What are the major motor tracts in the spinal cord?
Lateral Corticospinal, Anterior Corticospinal, Rubrospinal, Lateral Vestibulospinal, Reticulospinal, and Tectospinal tracts.
75
Lateral Corticospinal tract
responsible for contralateral movements of the body, skilled manipulation of the distal parts of limbs, largest of motor tracts
76
Anterior Corticospinal tract
CONTROLS TRUNK MUSCLES.
77
Rubrospinal tract
regulates muscle tone for upper limb flexion and posture to support the body against gravity
78
Lateral vestibulospinal tract
**controls the extensor bone.**
79
Reticulospinal tract
helps facilitate walking control, posture, and maintain muscle tone in the trunk.
80
Tectospinal tract
coordinates the movement of the head and neck with the eyes, also regulates neck and body twisting for startle reflexes
81
What are the major sensory tracts in the spinal cord?
Dorsal columns, Spinothalamic tract, and Spinocerebellar tract.
82
Dorsal columns
resides in the back of the spinal cord, they relay fine and discriminative touch, pressure, and proprioceptive sensory information
83
Spinothalamic tract
this tract sends pain, temp, and crude touch information
84
Spinocerebellar tract
consists of 2 tracts, ventral and dorsal tracts, conveys proprioceptive information about the body to the cerebellum - Motor information leaves the spinal cord's ventral root and courses to skeletal muscles and viscera, sensory info enters the spinal cord through the dorsal root by way of the spinal nerves, this arrangement of roots repeats itself 31 times
85
The brain accounts for
all the major motor and sensory pathways for sensations and movements (except for reflexes)
86
What is a reflex?
A rapid response controlled at the level of the spinal cord and nerves, involving a reflex arc.
87
What do muscle spindles detect?
They detect the amount of stretch in muscles. When a muscle is stretched, information is sent by way of sensory neurons to the dorsal roots of gray matter, which sends infor to motor neurons through interneurons, and a motor message is then sent through the ventral root to the muscle to contract. **dorsal is sensory, ventral is motor*

Speech and Sound Science (2 decks)

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