Test 2:) Flashcards
What is anxiety?
A mood state characterised by marked negative affect and bodily symptoms of tension in which a person apprehensively anticipates future danger or misfortune: ‘Shadow of Intelligence’.
What is the Evolutionary Perspective of fear?
The fear response is geared to enhance an animal’s survival advantage in the face of threat. The animal enters a state of physical readiness to avoid harm, avoid pain and avert danger.
Examples of Archetypal threats and their pathological response.
- Smothering: Panic attack, panic disorder
- Animals, environment: Specific phobia
- Social rejection: Social anxiety
- Dirt, disorganisation: OCD
- Future: GAD
What is fear?
An immediate emotional reaction to a current threat geared towards averting danger.
What is a Panic Attack?
An abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort accompanied by a number of physical symptoms, such as dizziness or heart palpitation.
Two types of panic attacks.
- Expected (cued) panic attack: If you know that you are afraid of high places, you might have a panic attack in that situation but not anywhere else.
- Unexpected (uncued) panic attack: If you are assailed by an attack for no good reason, out of the blue.
What are the two types of symptoms of panic attacks?
- Physical symptoms: palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, dizziness, chest pain.
- Cognitive symptoms: fear of losing control, dying or going crazy.
What are the Biological Contributions to the causes of anxiety and related disorders?
- Biological Vulnerability: The tendency to panic seems to run in families and probably has a genetic component that differs from genetic contributors to anxiety.
- Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF): the expression of anxiety and the groups of genes that increase the likelihood that this system will be turned on.
- The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS): activated by signals from the brain stem of unexpected events, such as major changes in body functioning that might signal danger.
- Fight/Flight System (FFS): a brain circuit in animals that, when stimulated, causes an immediate alarm and escape response resembling human panic. Also known as ‘fight, flight and freeze’.
- Brain circuits are shaped by environment: Factors in the environment can change the sensitivity of these neural systems, directly affecting susceptibility to anxiety and the emergence of anxiety disorder.
What are the Social Contributions to the causes of anxiety and related disorders?
- Stressful Events: Stressful life events trigger our biological and psychological vulnerabilities to anxiety.
- An Integrated Model: Triple Vulnerability Theory: a theory of the development of anxiety by putting the factors together.
What are the Psychological Contributions to the causes of anxiety and related disorders?
- Generalized Psychological Vulnerability: A general ‘sense of uncontrollability’ may develop early as a function of upbringing and other disruptive or traumatic environmental factors.
- Behavioural Theorists (Bandura): panic invoke conditioning and cognitive explanation that are difficult to separate. Thus, a string fear response initially occurs during extreme stress. This emotional response then becomes associated with a variety of external and internal cues. These cues, or conditioned stimuli, provoke the fear response and assumption of danger, even if the danger is not actually present, so it is really a learnt or false alarm.
- Psychoanalytic Theorists (Freud): You might not be aware of the cues or triggers of severe fear, that is, they are unconscious. This is most likely because these cues or triggers may travel from the eyes directly to the amygdala in the emotional brain without going through the cortex, the source of awareness.
What is Anxiety Sensitivity?
The general tendency to respond fearfully to anxiety symptoms.
What are External Cues?
Places or situations similar to the one where an initial panic attack occurred.
What are Internal Cues?
Increases in heart rate, that were associated with the initial panic attack, even if they are now the result of normal circumstances, such as exercise.
Outline the Triple Vulnerability Theory.
- Generalised Biological Vulnerability: we can see that the tendency to be uptight might be inherited. But GBV for anxiety is not sufficient to produce anxiety itself.
- Generalised Psychological Vulnerability: that is, you might also grow up believing the world is dangerous and out of control and you might not be able to cope when things go wrong based on your early experiences.
- Specific Psychological Vulnerability: you learn from early experience, such as being taught that some situations or objects are filled with danger (even if they are not).
Comorbidity of Anxiety and Related Disorders.
- Before describing the specific disorders, it is important to note that the disorders often occur together.
- Additional diagnosis for all anxiety disorders is minor depression. This is important when discussing the relationship of anxiety and depression.
Comorbidity with Physical Conditions.
- The presence of anxiety disorder was uniquely and significantly associated with thyroid disease, respiratory disease, gastrointestinal disease, arthritis, migraine and allergic conditions.
- Comorbid anxiety and physical disease cause greater morbidity and poorer quality of life.
Suicide in anxiety and related disorders.
Having an anxiety or related disorder, not just PD, uniquely increases the chances of having thought about suicide, or making suicidal attempts. However, the relationship is strongest with PD and PTSD.
What is Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?
An anxiety disorder characterised by intense, uncontrollable, unfocused, chronic and continuous worry that is distressing and unproductive, accompanied by physical symptoms of tenseness, irritability and restlessness.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
A. Excessive anxiety and worry, occurring more days than not for at least 6 months, about a number of events or activities.
B. The individual finds it difficult to control the worry.
C. The anxiety and worry are associated with at least 3 (or more) of the following 6 symptoms (with at least some symptoms present for more days than not for the past 6 months):
1. Restlessness or feeling on the edge.
2. Being easily fatigued.
3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank.
4. Irritability.
5. Muscle tension.
6. Sleep disturbances.
D. The anxiety, worry or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning.
E. The disturbances are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g. drug abuse, medication).
F. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g. anxiety or worry about having panic attacks in panic disorder).
What are the Causes of GAD?
- A genetic contribution to GAD confirmed that what seems to be inherited is the tendency to become anxious rather than GAD itself.
- Many people with GAD also inherit a tendency to be tense (generalised biological vulnerability) and proceed to develop a sense early on of the uncontrollability of adverse events (generalised psychological vulnerability).
The Management of GAD.
- The most prudent approach to management would involve the exclusion of physical causes to the anxiety symptoms.
- Acute Symptomatic Relief can be achieved with the time-limited use of anxiolytic agents like the Benzodiazepines.
- The long-term management is strong evidence for the usefulness of antidepressants agents such as Serotonin Noradrenergic Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs).
- Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): patients learn to use cognitive therapy and other coping techniques to counteract and control the worry process.
What is Panic Disorder?
The recurrent, unexpected panic attacks accompanied by concern about future attacks and/or a lifestyle change to avoid future attacks.
What is Agoraphobia?
An anxiety disorder characterised by anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult in the event of panic symptoms.
A list of typical situations commonly avoided by individuals with agoraphobia.
- Shopping malls.
- Buses.
- Shops.
- Movies.
- Lifts.
Agoraphobia without the presence of a panic attack?
An individual who has not had a panic attack for years may still have strong agoraphobic avoidance. Avoidance is determined by the extent to which you think or expect you might have another attack rather than by how many attacks you have.
What is Interoceptive Avoidance?
The avoidance of physical sensations. These behaviours involve removing yourself from situations or activities that might produce the physiological arousal that somehow resembles the beginnings of a panic attack. These include:
1. Running up the stairs.
2. Hot, stuffy rooms.
3. Hot, stuffy cars.
4. Dancing.
5. Sexual relations
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Panic Disorder (PD)
A. Recurrent unexpected panic attacks are present.
B. At least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 or more of one of the following: (a) Persistent concern or worry about additional panic attacks (e.g. losing control, having a heart attack, ‘ging crazy’ or (b) A significant maladaptive change in behaviour related to the attacks.
C. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g. a drug of abuse, medication) or another medical condition (e.g. hyperthyroidism).
D. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g. the panic attacks do not occur only in response to feared social situations, as in social anxiety disorder).
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Agoraphobia
A. Marked by fear or anxiety about two or more of the following 5 situations:
1. Using public transportation.
2. Being in open spaces.
3. Being in enclosed places.
4. Standing in line or being in a crowd.
5. Being outside the home alone.
B. The individual fears or avoids these situations due to thoughts that escape might be difficult or help might not be available in the event of developing panic-like symptoms.
C. The agoraphobia situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.
D. The agoraphobic situations are actively avoided, require the presence of a companion or are endured with intense fear or anxiety.
E. The fear or anxiety is not proportionate to the actual danger posed by the agoraphobic situations or to the sociocultural context.
F. The fear, anxiety or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more.
G. The fear, anxiety or avoidance causes clinically significant distress is social, occupational or other important areas of functioning.
H. If another medical disorder is present, the fear, anxiety or voidance is excessive.
I. The fear, anxiety or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder (e.g. the symptoms are not confined to specific phobia).
What are the Cultural Influences of PD?
- Somatic symptoms of anxiety may be emphasised in non-Western societies.
- Subjective feelings of dread may be foreign to some cultures, meaning individuals in these cultures do not attend to their feelings.
- ‘Brain Fag Syndrome’ it is considered a ‘reactive’ form of anxiety and includes symptoms such as conversion. Sensory disturbances include itchiness of the scalp, some limitation of memory and concentration.
What are the Causes of PD and Agoraphobia?
- Agoraphobia often develops after a person has unexpected panic attacks, but whether it develops and how severe it becomes seems to be socially and culturally determined.
- PD and panic attacks seem to be related most strongly to biological and psychological factors and their interactions.
What is Separation Anxiety?
What a child might feel at the threat of separation from an important caregiver.
The Management of PD and Agoraphobia.
- Medication: SSRIs are the preferred medication for PD.
- Psychological Intervention: the strategy of exposure-based treatments is to arrange conditions in which the patient can gradually face the feared situations and learn there is nothing to fear. Patients are taught relaxation or breathing retraining to help them reduce anxiety and excess arousal.
- Combined Psychological and Pharmacological Treatment: ‘Stepped Care’ approach is when the clinician begins with one treatment and then adds another if needed.
What is Panic Control Treatment (PCT)?
Panic Control Treatment (PCT) concentrates on exposing patients with PD to the cluster of their panic attacks. The therapist attempts to create ‘mini’ panic attacks.
What is Specific Phobia?
The unreasonable fear of a specific object or situation that markedly interferes with daily life functioning.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Specific Phobia.
A. Marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (e.g. flying, heights). *In children, the fear may be expressed by crying, tantrums).
B. The phobic object or situation almost always provokes immediate fear and anxiety.
C. The phobic object or situation is actively avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.
D. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the specific object or situation.
E. The fear, anxiety or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more.
F. The fear, anxiety or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning.
G. The disturbance is not better explained by symptoms of another medical disorder, including panic-like symptoms, objects or situations related to obsessions, reminders of traumatic events, separation from home or attachment figures.
What is Blood-Injection-Injury Phobia?
The unreasonable fear and avoidance of exposure to blood, injury or the possibility of an injection.
What is Situational Phobia?
Anxiety involving enclosed places or public transportation.
What are the subgroups of Specific Phobia?
- Blood-Injection-Injury phobia.
- Situational Phobia.
- Natural Environment Phobia.
- Animal Phobia.
What is Claustrophobia?
The fear of small, enclosed places. It is a situational phobia.
What is Natural Environment Phobia?
The fear of situations or events in nature, especially heights, storms and water.
What is Animal Phobia?
The unreasonable, enduring fear of animals or insects that usually develops early in life.
What are the Causes of Specific Phobia?
- Direct experience, where real danger or pain results and raises a true alarm.
- Experiencing a false alarm in a specific situation, observing someone else experience severe fear, or, under the right conditions, being told about danger.
- Information transmission.
What is Information Transmission?
Being warned repeatedly about a potential danger is enough for someone to develop a phobia.
The Management of Specific Phobia.
- Psychological treatment: require structured and consistent exposure-based approaches. The patient can practice approaching the phobic situation or object at home, checking in occasionally with the therapist.
- Medications: anxiolytics agents are useful to acutely contain overwhelming distress. They may also be useful as an emergency contingency measure.
What is Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)?
The extreme, enduring, irrational fear and avoidance of social or performance situations.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder.
A. Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the person is exposed to possible scrutiny by others. Examples include having a conversation, eating or drinking, giving a speech.
B. The individual fears that he/she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated.
C. The social situations are avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.
D. The fear or anxiety is out of proportions to the actual threat posed by the social situation, and to the sociocultural context.
E. The fear, anxiety or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more.
F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning.
G. The fear, anxiety or avoidance is not attributed to the effects of a substance or another medical condition.
H. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder.
I. If another medical condition is present, the fear, anxiety or avoidance is clearly unrelated.
J. The social situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.
What are the Causes of Social Anxiety Disorder?
- Prepared by evolution to fear certain wild animals and dangerous situations in the natural environment.
- Some infants are born with a temperamental profile or trait of inhibition or shyness.
- Someone could inherit a generalised biological vulnerability to develop anxiety, a biological tendency to be socially inhibited, or both.
- The vulnerable individual who had stressful experiences may harbour the thought that social evaluation can be dangerous.
The Management of Social Anxiety Disorder.
- Psychological treatments: Social mishap exposures directly target the patients’ beliefs by confronting them with the actual consequences of such mishaps.
- Family-based treatments appear to outperform individual treatment when the child’s parents also have an anxiety disorder.
What is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
An enduring, distressing emotional disorder that follows exposure to severe helplessness. The victim relives the trauma, avoids stimuli associated with it and develops a numbing of responsiveness and an increased vigilance and arousal.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for PTSD.
A. Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in 1 or more of the following:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event.
2. Learning that the event occurred to a close relative or close friend.
3. Witnessing, in person, the event as they occurred to others.
4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event.
B. Presence of 1 or more of the following intrusion symptoms associated with the traumatic events, beginning after the event occurred:
1. Recurrent, involuntary and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic event.
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and effect of the dream are related to the traumatic event.
3. Dissociative reactions (flashbacks) in which the individual feels as if the traumatic event were recurring.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that resemble an aspect of the event.
5. Marked psychological reactions to internal or external cues that resemble an aspect of the event.
C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event, beginning after the event occurred as evidenced by 1 or both of the following:
1. Avoidance of external reminders (people, places) that arouse distressing memories, thoughts.
2. Avoidance to distressing memories, thoughts, feelings.
D. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood associated with the traumatic event, beginning or worsening after the event occurred, as evidenced by 2 or more of the following:
1. Inability to remember an important aspect of the event.
2. Persistent and exaggerated negative beliefs about oneself, others or the world (“the world is completely dangerous).
3. Persistent distorted cognitions about the cause or consequences of the event that lead the individual to blame oneself.
4. Persistent negative emotional state.
5. Markedly diminished interest in significant activities.
6. Feelings of detachment from others.
7. Persistent inability to experience positive emotions.
E. Marked alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with the event, beginning or worsening after the event occurred, as evidence by 2 or more of the following:
1. Irritable behaviour and angry outbursts.
2. Reckless or self-destructive behaviour.
3. Hypervigilance.
4. Exaggerated startle response.
5. Problems with concentration.
6. Sleep disturbances.
F. Duration of the disturbances is more than 1 month.
G. The disturbances cause clinically significant impairment in important areas of functioning.
H. The disturbance is not attributed to the physiological effects of a substance.
I. Specifiers
1. Depersonalisation: persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling detached from one’s mental processes or body.
2. Derealisation: persistent or recurrent experiences of unreality of surroundings.
What are the Causes of PTSD?
- Generalised biological vulnerability: genetic factors predispose individuals to be easily stressed and anxious, which then may make it more likely that a traumatic experience will result in PTSD.
- Generalised psychological vulnerability: family instability was found to be a risk factor for the development of PTSD.
- Social factors: Social factors like having a strong support group around you make it less likely to develop PTSD.
The Management of PTSD.
- Psychological treatment: face original trauma, process the intense emotions and develop effective coping procedures in order to overcome the effects of the disorder. Cognitive therapy to correct negative assumptions about the trauma, such as feeling guilty.
- Medications: antidepressants such as SSRIs. Anticonvulsant mood stabilising agents reduce flashbacks and irritability, alleviating depression.
What is Catharsis?
Reliving emotional trauma to relieve emotional suffering.
What is Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD)?
A disorder in which a bereaved person experiences intense longing for and preoccupation with the deceased and a range of symptoms that make it difficult to move on with life.
What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?
A disorder involving unwanted, persistent, intrusive impulses, as well as repetitive actions intended to suppress them.
What are the 4 subgroups of Prolong Grief Disorder?
- Adjustment disorders: describe anxious or depressive reactions to life stress that impair work and academic performance and quality of life.
- Attachment disorders: refer to disturbed and developmentally inappropriate behaviours in children, in which the child is unable or unwilling to form normal attachment relationships with caregiving adults.
- Reactive Attachment Disorder: the child will seldom seek out a caregiver for protection, support and nurturing and will seldom respond to offer from caregivers to provide this kind of care.
- Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder: a similar set of child-rearing circumstance would result in a pattern of behaviour in which the child shows no inhibitions to approaching adults.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
A. Presence of obsession, compulsion or both.
Obsessions are defined by:
1. Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced during the disturbance, as intrusive and inappropriate and cause anxiety.
2. The individual attempts to ignore such thoughts, impulses, or images.
Compulsions are defined by:
1. Repetitive behaviours (washing hands) or mental acts (counting) that the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession.
2. The behaviours or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing distress. However, they are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to prevent.
B. The obsessions or compulsions are time-consuming or cause impairment in important areas of functioning.
C. The obsessive-compulsive symptoms are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance.
D. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Prolonged Grief Disorder.
A. The death, at least 12 months ago, of a person who was close to the bereaved individual.
B. Since death, the development of a persistent grief response characterised by one/both of the following symptoms. The symptom(s) have occurred nearly every day for at least the last month:
1. Intense yearning/longing for the deceased person.
2. Preoccupation with memories of the deceased person.
C. Since the death, at least 3 of the following symptoms have been present most days and have occurred nearly every day for at least the last month:
1. Identity disruption since death.
2. Marked sense of disbelief about the death.
3. Avoidance of reminders that the person is dead.
4. Intense emotional pain (anger, bitterness) related to the death.
5. Difficulty reintegrating into one’s relationships and activities after the death.
6. Emotional numbness as a result of the death.
7. Feeling that life is meaningless as a result of the death.
8. Intense loneliness as a result of the death.
D. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress in important areas of functioning.
E. The duration and severity of the bereavement reaction clearly exceed expected social, cultural, or religious norms of the individual’s culture and context.
F. The symptoms are not better explained by MDD, PTSD, or the physiological effects of a substance.
Types of obsessions and associated compulsions
- Symmetry/exactness/just right (needing things to be symmetrical; urges to do things over and over until they feel ‘just right’): putting things in a certain order. Repeating rituals.
- Forbidden thoughts or action (fears, urges to harm self or others; fears of offending God): Checking. Repeated requests for reassurance.
- Cleaning/contamination (germs; fears of contamination): Repetitive/excessive washing.
Using gloves, masks to do daily tasks. - Hoarding (fears of throwing anything away): Collecting/saving objects with little/no actual value.
What are the Causes of OCD?
- Generalised biological & psychological vulnerability: early experiences conditioned patients with OCD that some thoughts are dangerous and unacceptable because the terrible things that they are thinking might happen and they would be responsible.
What is a Tic?
A semi-purposeful muscular behaviour, usually a sudden jerk of a limb, neck movement, grimace, tight closure to the eye, grunt or other simple vocalisation.
What is Thought-action fusion?
When patients with OCD equate thoughts with the specific actions represented by the thoughts, may be caused by attitudes of excessive responsibility and resulting guilt developed during childhood.
The Management of OCD.
- Medications: most effective are SSRIs such as the tricyclic antidepressant, but relapse often occurs when the medication is discontinued.
- Psychological treatments: Exposure and Ritual Prevention (ERP) is a process whereby the rituals are actively prevented, and the patient is systematically and gradually exposed to the feared thoughts or situations. Cognitive treatments with a focus on the overestimation of threat, the importance and control of intrusive thoughts.
What is Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)?
A disorder featuring a disruptive preoccupation with some imagined defect in appearance.
What are the features of Body Dysmorphic Disorder?
- Many people with this order become fixated on mirrors, others avoid mirrors to an almost phobic extent.
- Suicidal ideation, suicide attempts and suicide itself are typical consequences of BDD.
- ‘Ideas of reference’ which means that they think everything that goes on in their world is somehow related to them.
- Depression and substance abuse are common comorbid conditions.
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
A. Preoccupation with one/more defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable to others.
B. At some point during the course of the disorder, the individual has performed repetitive behaviours or mental acts in response to the appearance concerns.
C. The occupation causes clinically significant impairment in important areas of functioning.
D. The appearance preoccupation is not better explained by concerns with body fat or weight in an individual whose symptoms meet criteria for an eating disorder.
What are the Causes of Body Dysmorphic Disorder?
- There is no information on biological or psychological predisposing vulnerabilities, nor genetic contributions to BDD.
- The psychopathology of BDD lies in their reacting to a ‘deformity’ that others cannot perceive. Social and cultural determinants of beauty and body image largely define what is ‘deformed’.
The Management of Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
- Medication: SSRIs provide relief for some people.
- Psychological treatment: exposure and response prevention has also been successful with BDD.
What are the features of Hoarding Disorder?
- These individuals usually begin acquiring things during their teenage years and often experience great pleasure from collecting various items.
- They experience strong anxiety and distress about throwing anything away, because everything has either some potential value in their minds
- Their homes may become almost impossible to live in.
- Cognitive and emotional abnormalities include strong emotional attachment to possessions, an exaggerated desire for control over possessions, marked deficits in deciding whether a possession is worth keeping or not.
What are the 3 major characteristics of Hoarding Disorder?
- Excessive acquisition of things.
- Difficulty discarding anything.
- Living with excessive clutter under gross disorganisations.
The Management of Hoarding Disorder.
- Cognitive-behavioural therapy is a promising treatment for HD.
- Teach people to assign different values to objects and to reduce anxiety about throwing away items that are somewhat less valued.
What is Trichotillomania?
People’s urge to pull out their own hair from anywhere on the body, including the scalp, eyebrows and arm.
What is Excoriation?
The recurrent, difficult-to-control picking of your skin leading to significant impairment and scarring.
The Management of Trichotillomania and Excoriation.
- Psychological treatments: Habit reversal training has the most evidence for success with both disorders. Patients are carefully taught to be more aware of their repetitive behaviour, and to then substitute a different behaviour, such as chewing gum.
What is a Clinical Assessment?
The systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological and social factors in an individual presenting with a possible psychological disorder.
What is Diagnosis?
A process of determining whether a presenting problem meets the established criteria for a psychological disorder.
What are the key concepts in assessment and diagnosis?
- Reliability: the degree to which a measurement is consistent, for example over time and among different raters.
- Validity: the degree to which a technique measures what it is designed to measure
- Standardisation: the process of establishing specific norms and requirements for a measurement technique to ensure it is used consistently across measurement occasions.
Outline Reliability as a key concept in assessment and diagnosis.
- One way psychologists improve their reliability is by carefully designing their assessment devices and then conducting research on them to ensure that two or more raters will get the same answer (called Inter-Rater Reliability).
- They also determine whether these assessment techniques are stable across time. For instance, all things being equal, such as attention span, should remain stable from one assessment to the next (called Test-Retest Reliability).
