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Psychology 101 > Test 2 > Flashcards

Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Motivation

A

Inferred process within a person or animal that cause movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation

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2
Q

Theories of Motivation

A

An over-arching explanation for why people do the things that they do

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3
Q

Instincts

A

Automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behaviour patterns triggered by particular stimuli (e.g., a cat knows how to catch mice)

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4
Q

Fixed-action patterns

A

An instinctual behavioural sequence that’s relatively invariant within the species (E.g., Mother Turkey’s)

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5
Q

Releaser

A

the triggering stimulus – what cues the fixed action pattern (e.g., the “cheep, cheep” sound of baby turkeys)

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6
Q

Drives

A

A biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something and causes us to seek out what is needed, such as food or water

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7
Q

Primary Drives

A

innate like thirst, hunger, and sex

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8
Q

Secondary Drives

A

needs that have been conditioned to have
meaning (e.g, like money)

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9
Q

Incentives

A

the stimuli we seek that can satisfy drives such as food, water, social approval, companionship, and other needs

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10
Q

Drive Reduction Theories

A
  • We feel unpleasant tension when we stray from homeostasis (physiological equilibrium)
  • We become motivated (driven) to restore that physiological equilibrium (satisfy the need)
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11
Q

Homeostasis

A

The body’s physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment

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12
Q

Drive Reduction Theory

A
  1. we have physical needs
  2. unmet needs create drive
  3. that drive pushes us to reduce the need
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13
Q

Arousal Theory

A

The body’s physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment

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14
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

Performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

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15
Q

What happens when we preform simple or well-learned tasks?

A

Performance improves as arousal increases

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16
Q

What happens when we preform complex, unfamiliar, or difficult tasks?

A

relationship between arousal and performance reverses after a point, and performance declines as arousal increases

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17
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

Believed that individuals posses a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential (created the hierarchy of needs - purple pyramid)

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18
Q

Self-Determination Theory

A

proposes that people have three primary motives:
* Autonomy
* Relatedness
* Competence

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19
Q

Autonomy

A

To cause outcomes in your own life—act consistently with your self-concept

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20
Q

Relatedness

A

To feel connected with others who are important to you—care for others and experience caring

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21
Q

Competence

A

To feel mastery over your life - to perform tasks at a satisfying level

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22
Q

What is the key distinction with self-determination theory?

A

extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

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23
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

a person tends to do a task or activity mainly because doing so will yield some kind of reward or benefit upon completion (also known as performance motivation - gaining rewards) e.g., paycheck

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24
Q

Intrisnic motivation

A

characterized by doing something purely because of enjoyment or fun (also known as mastery motivation - overcoming challenges while enjoying it)

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25
Q

Over-justification effect

A

The addition of external motivation can undermine internal motivation

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26
Q

Self-efficacy

A

Confidence that one can plan and execute a course of action

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27
Q

Approach Goals

A

are enjoyable and pleasant incentives that we are drawn toward, such as praise or financial reward

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28
Q

Avoidance Goals

A

are unpleasant outcomes such as shame, embarrassment, or emotional pain, which we try to avoid

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29
Q

Three Motivational Conflicts

A
  1. Approach-approach conflicts * Conflicts that occur when you are equally attracted to two or more possible goals
  2. Avoidance-avoidance conflicts * Conflicts that require you to choose the lesser of two evils because you dislike both alternatives
  3. Approach-avoidance conflicts * Conflicts that occur when a single activity or goal has both a positive and a negative aspect
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30
Q

Hunger

A

The need to consume enough nutrients so that you have enough energy to function. it is our major drive

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31
Q

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

A

stimulation reduces eating (“off” switch);
destruction causes overeating

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32
Q

Lateral hypothalamus

A

stimulation increases eating (“on” switch);
destruction reduces eating to starvation level

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33
Q

What happens when the ventromedial hypothalamus no longer functions?

A

Hunger regulation no longer functions properly

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34
Q

Felling full is in the ________ not the _________

A

brain; stomach

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35
Q

The biology of weight

A

Research does not support the idea that people who are overweight are emotionally disturbed. Heaviness is not always caused by overeating

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36
Q

Set Point

A

Genetically influenced weight range for an individual. Varies 10% either direction

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37
Q

Basal metabolic rate

A

the rate at which the body burns calories for energy

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38
Q

Why does the ob gene cause obesity in some individuals?

A

Ob gene causes fat cells to secrete the protein leptin

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39
Q

What receptors urge us to eat?

A

receptors in the nose and mouth

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40
Q

What receptors urge us to stop eating?

A

receptors in the gut

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41
Q

Ghrelin

A

Makes you hungry

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42
Q

Leptin

A

Turns off appetite

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43
Q

What does sugar activate?

A

pleasure-inducing dopamine pathway

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44
Q

Prevalence of obesity in Canada

A

Approximately 26% of women and 35% of men

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45
Q

Social Facilitation

A

Eating more when we’re around other people –it’s a social activity

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46
Q

Impression Management

A

eating in order to fit in or not be embarrassed (E.g., eating less –ordering a salad on the first date)

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47
Q

Minimal eating norm

A

good manners—at least in some social and cultural settings—is to eat small amounts to avoid seeming rude

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48
Q

Modeling

A

eating whatever others eat

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49
Q

“Mindless Eating”

A

unintentionally influenced by container size or colour

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50
Q

Wansink & Kim “Mindless Eating” study

A
  • gave away fresh popcorn for free
  • moviegoers ate 45.3% more when it was given to them in a large container
  • gave away free 14 day-old popcorn
    even though it was disliked, they still ate 33.6% more popcorn
  • when asked 77% percent said size didn’t affect how much they ate
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51
Q

Van Ittersum & Wansink Dish Size & consumption study

A

Increasing the size of the dishes increases consumption by 18–25% for meals and 30–45% for snack foods

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52
Q

Wansink, Painter, & North Attention and Eating Study

A

Bottomless bowl of soup study:
* Individuals stopped eating after
consuming, on average, over 70%
more than those participants who
knowingly refilled their bowls

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53
Q

Master’s and Johnson’s four stages of sexual response:

A
  • Excitement
  • Plateau
  • Orgasm
  • Resolution
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54
Q

Sex differences: compared to women, men…

A
  • Think about sex more often
  • Initiate sex more often in relationships
  • Desire sex more often in relationships
  • Masturbate more
  • Report fewer problems with low sexual desire
  • More often pay money or offer gifts for sex
  • More often watch (and pay for) pornography
  • Have orgasms more reliably and easily than
    women
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55
Q

Clark & Hatfield Study

A
  1. “go out with me tonight?”
  2. “come over to my apartment tonight?”
  3. “go to bed with me tonight?”
    * women would more likely say yes to question 1, whereas men would most likely say yes to question 3 (but still 1+2 but not as high)
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56
Q

Problem with Clark & Hatfield’s Paradigm

A
  • Riskier for women to agree
  • Men and women are perceived
    differently when they propose casual
    sex (Conley, 2010)
  • Female proposers are perceived as
    more intelligent, successful, and
    sexually skilled than male proposers
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57
Q

Arousal in measured in what two ways?

A
  1. self-report
  2. Physical
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58
Q

Better sex results in…

A
  • Men less likely to leave
  • More satisfied wives two years later
  • Men’s satisfaction fluctuated with frequency of sex
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59
Q

Better relationships result in…

A
  • Higher sex satisfaction 18 months later, if relationship satisfaction and effective communication are high
  • Greater sex satisfaction 1 year later if wife has open communication and high perceptions of stability
  • More sexual satisfaction, following a 5-session marital communication intervention
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60
Q

People can engage in sex for approach/promotion reasons:

A
  • To feel good
  • To share intimacy/be closer with our partner
  • To have fun
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61
Q

People can engage in sex for avoidance/prevention reasons:

A
  • To stop our partner from leaving
  • To stop our partner from being upset
  • To stop feeling guilty
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62
Q

Human are innately social beings:

A
  • The needs to belong affects thoughts, emotions, and behaviours
  • Feelings of love activate the brain reward and safety systems
  • Social isolation increase the risk from mental decline and poor health
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63
Q

Affiliation need

A

the need to build relationships and to feel a part of a group

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64
Q

The standard of a beautiful body has changed:

A

In the 1900-1950, larger and heavier women were considered more attractive than now. Now, thinner women are considered more attractive. However, waist-to-hip ratio has not changed

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65
Q

Waist-to-hip-ratio and fertility

A

Married women with higher ratio reported more difficulty becoming pregnant.
Low waist-to-hip ratio is associated with absence of major diseases

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66
Q

Matching Phenomenon

A

Men and women of similar attractiveness are
drawn to one another

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67
Q

Why does the Matching phenomenon work?

A

Attractive people and unattractive people have different standards. Highly attractive people have high standard. Less attractive people have lower standards.

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68
Q

Good News about Beauty and Matching

A

Regardless of the level of physical attractiveness, people generally rate their spouses as attractive

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69
Q

Speed-dating results

A

Participants self-reported traditional sex differences in hypothetical mate preferences
* Men – physical attractiveness
* Women – earning prospects
However, these did not pan out in actual ratings of partners

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70
Q

What can we conclude about Matching Hypothesis & Beauty/Status Trade?

A

People don’t seem to know why they fall for who they

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71
Q

Online dating services:

A

Customers typically end up going out with fewer
than 1% of the people whose profiles they study online

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72
Q

Speed-dating events

A

The average participant makes a match with at
least 1 in 10 of the people they meet; some studies have found the average is 2 or 3 out of 10

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73
Q

Why is there a difference in online dating services?

A

When you have all criteria to consider, and
so many people to choose from, you start striving for perfection

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74
Q

Why is there a difference in speed-dating?

A

People realize that there aren’t an infinite number of possibilities…If they want to get anything out of the evening, they have to settle for less than perfection

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75
Q

Stereotype about dating

A
  • Men are indiscriminate pursuers who will go for anyone with a heartbeat
  • Women are selectors—the romantic gatekeepers who thrive on saying “no”
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76
Q

Attractiveness and Time of Day

A

Men and women approached at 9, 10:30 or 12 PM to rate attractiveness of people in the bar at the time. Called “The Closing Time Effect”

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77
Q

Attractiveness and Time of Month

A
  • Women who were not on hormonal birth control rated different faces at different times of the month
  • During ovulation, greater preference for more masculine faces; at other times, more feminine faces
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78
Q

Bottom line of Attraction

A

Many factors play a role in what we find attractive, and we don’t always know why we are attracted to some people

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79
Q

Passionate Love

A

Aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually at the beginning of a love relationship

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80
Q

Compassionate Love

A

The feelings of intimacy and affection we feel toward someone with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

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81
Q

Intimacy

A

feelings of being close and bonded

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82
Q

Passion

A

arousal and sexual attraction

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83
Q

Commitment

A

short-term commitment to love your partner, long-term to maintain that love and stay with them

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84
Q

What are the three components of Emotion?

A
  • A subjective thought and/or experience
  • accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal
  • an observable behavioural expression
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85
Q

Emotion

A

a state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action.

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86
Q

Physiology of emotions

A

Physiological Changes in the Brain and Body

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87
Q

Routes of emotion: fast route

A

skips the visual cortex and goes strait to the amygdala for an instant emotional reaction

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88
Q

Amygdala

A

A brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information “threat detector”

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89
Q

Assesses threat

A

Becomes activated during the perception of arousing or aversive/fear-inducing stimuli (e.g., Loud noises, Noxious odours, Bad tastes etc.)

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90
Q

Routes of emotion: slow pathway

A

Sensory input is routed to the cortex for analysis and then transmission to the amygdala

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91
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

the most forward part of the frontal lobes of the brain

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92
Q

Emotional regulation

A

modifying and controlling what we feel, associated with emotional experience

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93
Q

Left prefrontal cortex

A
  • more tuned to approach emotions
    (e.g., happiness, enthusiasm)
  • Involved in motivation to approach others; damage results in loss of joy
  • Also inhibits responses to unpleasant stimuli (bad feelings)
94
Q

Right prefrontal cortex

A
  • more tuned to unpleasant emotions
  • Involved in withdrawal and escape from unpleasant and frightful stimuli (e.g., emotions like disgust)
  • Related to depression and general negativity
95
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

A control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion etc.

96
Q

The autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic

A

“fight or flight”

97
Q

The autonomic nervous system: Parasympathetic

A

“rest and digest”

98
Q

Theories of emotion generally address what two major questions:

A
  • Does physiological arousal come before or after emotional feelings?
  • How do feelings and cognition interact?
99
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

Emotions are caused by bodily sensations
E.g., “I feel sad because I cry”

100
Q

What emotions result in sweaty palms, increased heart rate, and rapid breathing?

A
  • Fear
  • Anxiety
  • Excitement
  • Love
  • Anger
  • Exercise
101
Q

Issue with James-Lange:

A

The physical experience of arousal is not uniquely distinct for each emotion

102
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A
  • Emotions and arousal co-occur
  • Not causal, correlational
103
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory: paralyzed WWII veterans

A
  • Evidence from patients with spinal-cord injuries–experienced fewer subjective feelings of emotion like anger and fear
  • Less intense emotions suggesting that the body plays a part in emotion, body is somewhat casual
104
Q

What is interesting about emotions in certain situations?

A

it is not just the other behaviour, but also your
interpretation of it, that generates your emotional response

105
Q

The experience of emotion depends on two factors:

A

Physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation

106
Q

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

A
  • Stanley Schacter and Jerome Singer

Emotion:
* Physical response
* Cognitive interpretation
* Conscious experience

107
Q

Schacter and Singer’s (1962) classic study:

A
  • All participants received an epinephrine injection (i.e., adrenaline)
  • Told that it either causes arousal or has no effect
  • Participants were then put in a waiting room with someone else who either acted angry or goofy
  • If participants expected the shot would increase arousal, then it did not have an effect on their emotions
  • However, if participants did not expect the shot to affect arousal, participants interpreted it based on the situation:
108
Q

Capilano Bridge Experiment: Dutton & Aron (1974):

A

Capilano river:
* High, scary suspension bridge
* Low, stable bridge
* Approached by an attractive female
research assistant

Results: The males that met the
woman on the suspension bridge
found her more attractive and
were more likely to call her
(12.5% vs. 50%)

109
Q

Bottom line of Appraisal of Arousal

A
  • Emotion is determined, in part, by our
    appraisal/interpretation of a situation
  • The same principle occurs for
    evaluations of stressful events
  • An event is stressful for people
    only if they interpret it as such
110
Q

6 Basic Universal Emotions

A
  • Happiness
  • Sadness
  • Anger
  • Fear
  • Surprise
  • Disgust
111
Q

Real vs. Fake Emotions

A

*Faked emotions use different groups of muscles than authentic emotions
* Pretend sadness: Only 15% of subjects manage to get the eyebrows, eyelids, and forehead-wrinkle exactly right, mimicking the way true grief is expressed spontaneously

112
Q

Reward Smiles

A

are displayed to communicate positive experiences or intentions

113
Q

Affiliative Smiles

A

Create and maintain social bonds and signal appeasement

114
Q

Dominance Smiles

A

to signal status

115
Q

Does a smile always mean you are happy?

A

no, a smile might not mean “I’m happy” but,
* I’m trying to pleasant” (affiliation)
* “HA! Loser! I was right you were wrong.” (dominance)

116
Q

Body Language

A

nonverbal signals of movement, posture, gesture, and gaze (e.g, mood, status, liking vs. disliking)

117
Q

Primary Emotions

A
  • Emotions considered to be universal and biologically based
  • Generally include fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt
118
Q

Secondary Emotions

A

Emotions that develop with cognitive maturity and vary across individuals and cultures

119
Q

Display Rules

A

Social and cultural rules that regulate when, how, and where a person may express (or must suppress) emotions

120
Q

Emotional Dialects

A

Variations across cultures in how common
emotions are expressed.

121
Q

Cross-Cultural Emotion Difficulties

A

Analysis based on 97 studies (22,148 participants):
Emotion judgments made within-culture were 13% more accurate than cross-cultural judgments (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002)

122
Q

Language and Emotional Variation

A

Some cultures have words for specific emotions unknown to other cultures:
* Japanese: hagaii, helpless anguish paired with frustration

123
Q

Most common causes of death in the early 1900s

A

Influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles, and other contagious diseases

124
Q

Most common causes of death in the early 2000s

A

Heart disease, cancer, stroke, and diabetes are linked to unhealthy behaviours such as inactivity, obesity, and smoking

125
Q

Health Psychology

A

is the branch of psychology concerned with the
promotion of health and the prevention of illness

126
Q

Placebo effect

A

The perception that one has received an intervention improves one’s symptoms

127
Q

Nocebo effect

A

An intervention that is expected to cause harm or side effects creates those effects

128
Q

Stress

A

A psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands

129
Q

Stressors

A
  • An event, item, or experience that causes a stress response
  • The stress response helps living things deal with stressors
130
Q

What was the real name of ‘stress’ going to be if Salye’s english was better?

A

“strain”

131
Q

Why would “strain” be a better choice word for stress?

A

“Strain” may have been a better word because in psychology we are interested not only in the stressors (another word coined by Salye) but also in the stress response

132
Q

HPA axis

A

hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal glands

133
Q

Short Term: Fight-or-flight response

A

A set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological or physical threats (Great for immediate responses!)

134
Q

Long Term: General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A

A theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
* Hans Selye

135
Q

Alarm

A
  • Recognition of the threat and the physiological reactions that accompany it including increases in blood pressure, muscle tension, heart rate, and adrenaline release
  • corresponds to the fight or flight response
136
Q

Resistance

A
  • Body attempts to resist or cope with stressor that cannot be avoided
  • An individual uses his or her physical and mental resources to respond to the stressor in an appropriate way
137
Q

Exhaustion

A
  • When the stressful experience depletes your physical resources and your physiological stress response declines
  • This leads to physical problems and eventually to illness
138
Q

Acute Stress

A
  • Enhances immunity (except for allergic responses)
  • Increased number of lymphocytes (kills antigens) and macrophages
  • Dependent on adrenal secretion; lasts 2-5 days
139
Q

Chronic Stress

A
  • Suppresses immunity
  • Reduced number of lymphocytes and macrophages
  • Increases the severity of common illnesses
140
Q

What can chronic stress impair?

A

the body’s ability to heal itself

141
Q

Stress and Wound Healing Experiment

A
  • Independent Variable: Timing of wound: during summer vacation, or 3 days before first major exam (so each student served as his or her own control group)
  • Dependent Variable: Length of time to heal
  • Results: Students took an average of 3 days longer to heal during exam time! (40% longer)
142
Q

How does Chronic stress affect the common cold?

A

Chronic stress lasting a month or more increases risk of illness and vulnerability to common cold

143
Q

Common stressors: Frustration

A

blocked goal

144
Q

Common stressors: Pressure

A

expectation to behave in certain ways

145
Q

Common stressors: Change

A

having to adapt

146
Q

Common stressors: Conflict

A

two or more incompatible motivations. Should I stay or should I go?

147
Q

Common stressors: Financial

A

lack of money, unpaid bill

148
Q

Common stressors: work/school

A

exams, project deadlines, traffic

149
Q

Common stressors: physiological

A

lack of sleep, unhealthy eating, smoking/drinking

150
Q

Common stressors: psychological

A

personal relationships, conflict, bullying

151
Q

Common stressors: Social

A

family conflicts, life events

152
Q

Common stressors: Societal

A

Racism, poverty, powerlessness

153
Q

Stress and crowding

A

increases arousal levels, spread of diseases

154
Q

Stress and poverty

A

is associated with reduced control over one’s
environment

155
Q

How does crowding and poverty affect you?

A
  • Increased stress levels
  • Increased risk of heart disease
  • Increased rates of depression and anxiety
  • Poorer nutrition
  • Reduced control over health care options
  • Fewer educational opportunities
156
Q

Type A personality

A

People who tend to be organized but, impatient and worry about time, and are ambitious, motivated, and competitive but easily angered

157
Q

Type B personality

A

People who are more laid back and characterized by a patient, easygoing, and relaxed disposition

158
Q

Clinical and antagonistic hostility

A

People who are mistrustful of others and always ready to provoke mean, furious arguments

159
Q

Change Aspect

A
  • Holmes and Rahe (1967)
  • They suggested that stress is the degree to which people have to change and readjust their lives in response to an external event
160
Q

Change as a source of stress

A

According to the social readjustment rating scale, Holems’ and Rahe’s research suggested that scoring over 300 produced a high likelihood of having a negative health effect (150+ linked to 50/50 chance for negative health changes)

161
Q

Why doesn’t everyone get sick when they experience stress?

A

How we respond to stress may protect us or make us more vulnerable to illness. It is not stress necessarily that affects us, but how we respond to stress

162
Q

Richard Lazarus perceived stress and health

A

It is subjective stress that causes health problems

163
Q

Microstressors

A

cumulative effects of stress

164
Q

The most stressful circumstances are the ones that people have little to no ________ over

A

control

165
Q

Donnerstein & Wilson, 1976

A
  • In this study, participants completed surveys while they experienced a loud or normal noise
  • But twist: In one condition told they could press a button to stop the noise
  • So, the environment was still loud, but they had control: they had the resources to cope with it (Nobody actually stopped the noise, but they thought they could have)
  • Participants were then provoked by the experimenter (to increase their frustration) and given a chance to behave aggressively towards another subject in an experimental task
  • Results: People were much more aggressive in the noisy environment –but not if they felt they could cope with it
165
Q

Locus of Control

A

A general expectation about whether the results of your actions are under your own control (internal locus) or beyond your control (external locus)

166
Q

Stressful Events

A

An event is stressful for people only if they interpret it as such

167
Q

Appraisal

A

The cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential threat and demands of an event

168
Q

Why is our cognitive appraisal of a stressor important?

A

It explains why different individuals can have different emotional responses to the same stressors

169
Q

Cognitive appraisal of a stressful event

A
  • When we think we have the resources to overcome the stressor, we experience a “challenge” response
  • When we think we don’t have the resources to overcome the stressor, we experience a “Threat” response
170
Q

Problem-Focused Coping

A
  • Attempting to reduce stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor
  • Deal with the micro stressors in your life that you can change and control
171
Q

Emotion-Focused Coping

A

Trying to find ways of reducing effects of negative emotions

172
Q

Problem Focused Coping Strategies

A
  • Deal with the micro stressors in your life that you can change and control
  • Intentionally participate in activities that put you in a positive mood
  • adopt an optimistic outlook
173
Q

Optimism

A

The general expectation that things will go
well despite setbacks

174
Q

Pessimism

A

The tendency to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes

175
Q

Relative to pessimist, optimists tend to…

A
  • Have lower HPA activation in response to stress
  • Be less vulnerable to illness
  • Live longer
  • Be active problem-solvers
  • Don’t give up or escape
  • Keep a sense of humour
176
Q

A pessimistic attribution style is really bad:

A
  • Negative: “Bad things will happen”
  • Internal: “They’re my fault”
  • Stable: “They’re not going to change”
177
Q

People with a pessimistic explanatory style are…

A
  • more likely to get depressed
  • more vulnerable to illness
  • more likely than optimists to develop heart disease
178
Q

Coping Strategy: Relaxation

A

Relaxation procedures can provide relief from headaches, high blood pressure, anxiety, and insomnia

179
Q

Relaxation training

A

Has been used to help Type A personality heart
attack survivors reduce their risk of future heart attacks

180
Q

Coping Strategy: Religious Involvement

A

Religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active

181
Q

Coping Strategy: Forgivness

A
  • strategy to let go of grudges reduces physiological arousal and restores feelings of control
  • Holding on to grievances increases blood pressure, heart rate, and skin conductance
  • Forgiveness is linked to better physical outcomes
182
Q

Coping Strategy: Confession

A
  • (divulging private thoughts that make you ashamed or depressed) linked to better health
  • Particularly helpful for those who have experienced traumatic experiences
183
Q

Coping Strategy: Spend Time Outdoors

A

Research shows that spending 20 to 30 minutes sitting or walking in a place that provides you with a sense of nature at least 3 times a week significantly lowers cortisol levels

184
Q

“Earthing”

A
  • Grounding the human body to earth reduces cortisol
  • Resynchronizes cortisol hormone secretion in alignment with the natural 24-hour circadian rhythm profile
  • Improves sleep and reduces pain and stress (anxiety, depression, irritability)
185
Q

Coping Strategy: Exercise

A
  • Aerobic exercise lessens the negative effects of stress and has a host of positive physical and
    psychological health benefits
  • It is particularly good for your health if you have a high level of stress
186
Q

Coping Strategy: Maintain Social Connections

A
  • Chronic social isolation is as great a mortality risk as smoking, obesity, and high blood pressure
  • One estimate suggested that having social connections is associated with a 50% reduced risk of early death
187
Q

Social Support is related to…

A
  • Lower blood pressure
  • Lower cortisol
  • Better immune system functioning to fight illness
188
Q

Need to Belong and Well-Being (Stinson et al., 2008)

A
  • participants completed six bi-weekly surveys during first semester at university
  • Measured Self-Esteem
  • Measured Quality of Social Bonds
  • Measured Health Problems: Concrete health-related behaviours
  • Results: Higher self-esteem resulted in fewer health problems
189
Q

Happy marriages have health benefits:

A
  • Unmarried women are 50% more likely to die from heart disease, several forms of cancer, cirrhosis of the liver, and other preventable diseases than are married women
  • The number rises to 250% for unmarried men…
  • Better off being single than in an unhappy marriage though!!
  • Unhappy marriages and marriage disruption because of a spouse dying are among the most stressful events one can experience
190
Q

Central route persuasion

A

Offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses, relies on cognitive elaboration:
* motivation
* ability

191
Q

Peripheral route persuasion

A

uses incidental cues to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes, based on mental shortcuts:
* heuristic cues
* credibility, appearance cues, quality of arrangements

192
Q

Motivation

A

People will be more likely to process information through the central route when
they are highly motivated, and when they have the knowledge or expertise to understand the
information

193
Q

Opportunity

A

Central route is effective when people have sufficient time and freedom from distraction, and when the information is not overwhelmingly complex relative to their knowledge

194
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

The tension (discomfort) that arises when our
attitudes are inconsistent with our behaviour or when we are simultaneously aware of two conflicting attitudes

195
Q

Changing Behaviour vs. Attitudes:

A
  • Either of these two methods will reduce dissonance
  • People tend to use the easiest available method
  • It is often easier to change attitudes than behaviour
195
Q

Changing Behaviour vs. Attitudes:

A
  • Either of these two methods will reduce dissonance
  • People tend to use the easiest available method
  • It is often easier to change attitudes than behaviour
196
Q

Social Influences

A

shape our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings

197
Q

Social Norms

A

Written/unwritten guidelines for how to behave in social contexts

198
Q

Conformity

A

A change in behaviour due to the real or
imagined influence of others

199
Q

Chameleon Effect

A

The non-conscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of one’s
interaction partner

200
Q

In the social pressure study, does the participant go along and give the wrong answer or do they give the answer they know to be correct?

A

They would give the wrong answer

201
Q

Social psychology

A

Is the scientific study of how we think about,
influence, and relate to others (or the imagined presence of others)

202
Q

Social psychologists

A
  • Use scientific methods to study social behaviour
    (empirical approach)
  • They study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations
203
Q

Major themes in psychology:

A
  • Social thinking
  • Social influence
  • Social relations
204
Q

Attributions

A

The reasons we provide for why others do what they do

205
Q

Attribution theory

A

People are motivated to explain their own and other people’s behaviour by attributing causes of that behaviour to a situation or a disposition

206
Q

External/Situational attribution

A

something in the situation or environment caused the behaviour

207
Q

Internal/Dispositional attribution

A

something in the person (e.g., traits
or motive) caused the behaviour

208
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

A

The tendency, when analyzing others’ behaviour, to over-estimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate the effect of the situation

209
Q

“self-serving biases

A

habits of thinking that make us feel good about
ourselves

210
Q

The HUGE exception to the FAE:

A

We’re NOT prone to the fundamental attribution error when explaining our OWN behaviour

211
Q

Why does FAE explain negative behaviour in some cases?

A
  • We think others do things because of their personality: internal attribution
  • Other person: “He’s a jerk!”
  • We think we do things because of the situation: external attributions
  • You: “I’m having a bad day!”
212
Q

Happy Couples

A
  • Make situational explanations for negative behaviour
    e.g., “He forgot about our date because didn’t
    get much sleep last night”
  • Make dispositional attributions for positive behaviour
    e.g., “He got me flowers because he is such a
    thoughtful person”
213
Q

Unhappy Couples

A
  • Make dispositional attributions for negative behaviour
    e.g., “He forgot about our date because he is a
    thoughtless jerk”
  • Make situational attributions for positive behaviour
    e.g., “He bought me flowers out of obligation”
214
Q

Think before you blame:

A
  • Research shows that that we make the fundamental attribution error automatically,
    but once you’re aware of it, you can consciously compensate
  • When you find yourself blaming your partner’s mistake on a character flaw or permanent
    problem
  • Force yourself to consider more compassionate explanations: then give your partner the benefit of the doubt
215
Q

FAE according to newlyweds

A

Those prone to attributing their partners’ slipups to permanent internal characteristics rather than temporary external factors were much more likely to wind up divorcing

216
Q

Obedience

A

Social influence in which a person complies
with a direct request

217
Q

Obedience to authority:

A

to leaders, bosses, parents, police, doctors, experts, teachers…

218
Q

Need for social acceptance (normative social influence):

A

People sometimes conform because they want to be liked or they fear rejection

219
Q

Need for information (informational social influence):

A

But sometimes they also conform to be right: because they believe others know what to do better than they do

220
Q

Bystander Effect

A

The greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them will help

221
Q

Diffusion of responsibility

A
  • The thought: “Someone else will do something!”
  • Everyone assumes that someone else will help, and as a result, no one does
222
Q

Pluralistic ignorance

A

A false impression of how others are thinking, feeling, or responding

223
Q

Why does pluralistic ignorance happen?

A
  • Everybody individually is confused
  • But because nobody else is letting-on that they’re confused, everybody ALSO thinks that everyone else is understanding the article
224
Q

Social Facilitation

A

The presence of others arouses people,
improving performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing performance on
difficult tasks

225
Q

Social Loafing

A

Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward
attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

226
Q

Causes of social loafing

A
  • Acting as part of group and feeling less accountable (their individual performance can’t be evaluated)
  • Feeling individual contribution does not matter
  • Taking advantage when there is lack of identification with the group
227
Q

Symptoms of Groupthink

A
  • An illusion of invulnerability
  • Self-censorship
  • Pressure on dissenters to conform
  • An illusion of unanimity
228
Q

Groupthink

A

a tendency for all members of a group to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress disagreement
1. Ignore criticism
2. Social pressure
3. Overconfidence

229
Q

Group Polarization

A

If a group is like minded, discussion strengthens, rather than moderates, prevailing opinions

230
Q

Deindividuation

A

The loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading
to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts because of a reduced sense of self

Psychology 101 (2 decks)

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