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anatomy and physiology ii > Test #2 > Flashcards

Test #2 Flashcards

1
Q

Def: Cardiac Output

A

The amount of blood pumped by heart per minute

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2
Q

Def: Stroke Volume

A

Blood pumped during each heartbeat (ml/beat)

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3
Q

Def: Cardiac Reserve

A

Difference between cardiac output at rest and maximum cardiac output during exercise

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4
Q

Def: Heart Rate

A

Number of times heart meats per minute (beats/min)

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5
Q

What is the equation for calculating cardiac output

A

CO=HRxSV

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6
Q

Def: Intrinsic Regulation

A

Results from normal functional characteristics, not on neural or hormonal regulation

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7
Q

Def: Extrinsic Regulation

A

Involves neural and hormonal control

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8
Q

What 3 factors regulate stroke volume

A

preload, afterload, contractility

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9
Q

Def: Preload

A

The amount of stretch of the ventricular walls before contraction

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10
Q

Frank-starling law of the heart

A

The greater the preload, the greater the force of contraction because stretching of the sarcomeres optimizes the overlap into a range for the highest pumping. Increased EDV= increased stretch on the walls=optimized overlap of actin and myosin = increased force of contraction = increased stroke volume

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11
Q

Def: Venous Return

A

Amount of blood returning to the heart from systemic circulation, which determines EDV. Can be affected by skeletal muscle contractions known as muscle pump

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12
Q

How does muscle pumping work

A

Skeletal muscles squeeze area of the veins to actively pump the blood toward the heart

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13
Q

Def: Afterload

A

The pressure the contracting ventricles must produce to overcome the pressure in the aorta and move blood into the aorta

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14
Q

Def: Contractility

A

The forcefulness of contraction of the ventricle muscle fibers, which is controlled by inotropic agents

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15
Q

Def: Inotropic Agents

A

Substances which increase or decrease contractility of the ventricle muscle fibers

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16
Q

Def: Positive Inotropic Agents

A

open Ca2+ channels of the cardiac accelerator nerves which release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine and the hormone epinephrine from the adrenal medulla

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17
Q

Def: Negative Inotropic Agents

A

Drugs such as calcium channel blockers and beta blockers (decrease oxygen demand)

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18
Q

Factors which regulate HR (7)

A

Autonomic nervous system, hormones, ions, age (increases but max decreases), gender (females higher at rest), physical fitness (decreased at rest), temperature (increase in temp increases HR)

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19
Q

Parasympathetic Nerve Stimulation Control of Heart Rate

A

Vagus nerve decreases heart rate. Neurotransmitter acetylcholine hyperpolarizes the heart causeing more K+ channels to open

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20
Q

Sympathetic Nerve Stimulation Control of Heart Rate

A

Cardiac accelerator nerves increase heart rate. NE released at the SA/Av nodes opens more Ca2+ channels

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21
Q

Hormonal Control of Hearth Rate

A

Epinephrin and NE are release from the adrenal medulla. Acts slower but last longer. Acts as a backup system

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22
Q

Effects of blood pressure

A

Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure in the internal carotid arteries and aorta, sensory information goes to centers in the medulla oblongata

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23
Q

Effects of pH, Carbon dioxide and oxygen

A

Chemoreceptors detect pH and CO2 changes in the medulla oblongata through the CSF, and chemoreceptors monitor O2 in the carotid and aortic bodies

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24
Q

Effects of extracellular ion concentration

A

excess or reduced extracellular K+ decreases heart rate

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25
Q

Effect of body temperature

A

Heart Rate increases when temperature increases, HR decreases when body temperature decrease

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26
Q

Baroreceptor and Chemoreceptor reflex

A
  1. sensory neurons: Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors, 2. parasympathetic nervous system: Vagus nerve which innervates SA Node and dreceases HR 3. Sympathetic Nervous System: cardiac nerves which increase HR and myocardium contractility 4. SNS acts through the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and NE
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27
Q

Functions of Blood

A

Transportation of gases, nutrients and waste products, transportation of processed molecules, transportation of regulatory molecules, regulation of pH and osmosis, maintenance of body temperature, protection against foreign substances and clot formation

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28
Q

Composition of Blood

A

55% plasma, 45% formed elements

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29
Q

Def: Plasma

A

The liquid portion of the blood which contains 91% water, 7% proteins and 2% other solutes

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30
Q

Proteins in Plasma

A

Albumins 58%, Globulins 38% and Fibrinogen 4%

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31
Q

Albumins

A

Most abundant protien in blood plasma, maintains osmotic pressure and transports fatty acids, bilirubin and thyroid hormones

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32
Q

Globulins

A

Antibodies and transportation of lipids, iron and hormones (mainly sex hormones)

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33
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Responsible for blood clotting

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34
Q

Formed elements

A

Comprised of 95% red blood cells (erythrocytes), 5% white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets

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35
Q

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes

A

Biconcave discs with no nucleaus or mitochondria. Contain hemoglobin to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. converts CO2 and H2O to carbonic acid for bicarbonate buffer

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36
Q

White Blood cells (Leukocytes)

A

Protect body against microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris. Comprised of Granulocytes which are large granules that have multi-lobed nuclei and Agranulocytes which are small granules and have non-lobed nuclei

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37
Q

Platelets

A

Cell fragments that form platelet plugs and release chemicals for blood clotting, have surface glycoproteins which allow for adhesion to other molecules

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38
Q

Precursor Cell to Red Blood Cell

A

Proerythroblast

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39
Q

Precursor cell to granulocytes

A

Myeloblast

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40
Q

Precursor cell to lymphocytes

A

Lymphoblasts

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41
Q

precursor cell to monocytes

A

monoblasts

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42
Q

precursor cell to platelets

A

Megakaryoblasts

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43
Q

Components of RBC

A

1/3 hemoglobin and 2/3 lipids, ATP and carbonic anhydrase

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44
Q

Transport Functions of RBC

A

Oxygen (98.5% bound to hemoglobin), Carbon Dioxide (23% bound to hemoglobin, 70% bicarbonate) and H+ which is generated from carbonic anhydrase reaction

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45
Q

Hemoglobin

A

made up of four globin molecules with four heme molecules each with an iron atom

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46
Q

Oxyhemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin when transporting oxygen

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47
Q

deoxyhemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin with no oxygen bound

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48
Q

Carbaminohemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin transporting carbon dioxide

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49
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

The production of red blood cells, takes about 4 days, RBCs last about 120 days, stimulated by erythropoietin

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50
Q

RBC Recycling

A
  1. Natural degeneration of RBC’s 2. separation of components: Globin: recycled into amino acids, Heme: iron removed and recycles and the rest converted into bilirubin
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51
Q

WBC Movements

A

Ameboid (Arm like movement against walls), Diapedesis (Cells become thin, elongated and move wither between or through endothelial cells of capillaries), Chemotaxis (Attraction to and movement towards foreign materials or damaged cells)

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52
Q

Types of Granulocytes

A

Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils

53
Q

Types of Agranulocytes

A

lymphocytes and monocytes

54
Q

Neutrophils

A

60-70% of WBCs, nuclei have 2-5 lobes, 10-12h circulation or 1-2 d tissues, phagocytize bacteria and foreign matter, secrete lysozyme (an enzyme that metabolizes bacteria)

55
Q

Eosinophils

A

2-4% of WBCs, nuclei have 2 lobes, active in allergic reactions, destroy inflammatory chemicals like histamine, release chemicals that help destroy worms

56
Q

Basophils

A

0.5-1% of WBCs, inflammation and allergic response of tissues, produces histamine and produces heparin which inhibits blood clotting

57
Q

Lymphocytes

A

20-25% of WBCs, smallest, produced in red bone marrow, proliferates in lymphatic tissue, produces antibodies to destroy bacteria containing viruses and tumor cells

58
Q

Monocytes

A

3-8% of WBCs, largest, become macrophages after 3 days, phagocytic cells which ingest bacteria, dead cells and cell fragments, increases with chronic infection

59
Q

Platelet plugs

A
  1. platelet adhesion, 2. platelet release reaction, 3. platelet aggregation
60
Q

Functions of the circulatory system

A

Carry blood, exchange nutrients, waste products and gases, transport of hormones, components of the immune system, molecules required for coagulation, enzymes, nutrients, gases and waste products, regulate blood pressure, and directs blood flow

61
Q

Types of blood vessels

A

Arteries, capillaries and veins

62
Q

Types of arteries

A

Elastic (Great vessels leaving heart and direct branches off of them), Muscular ( Thick smooth muscle walls involved in vasoconstriction and vasodilation) and arterioles (smallest levels of arteries and have smooth muscle walls)

63
Q

Def: Capillaries

A

Site of exchange with tissues, microscopic vessels that usually connect arterioles and venules, thin walls for exchange

64
Q

Def: Veins

A

Thinner walls than arteries, contain less elastic tissue and fewer smooth muscle cells

65
Q

Types of veins

A

Venules (smallest and drain from capillaries), small veins and medium and large veins

66
Q

Layers of the general blood vessel

A

Tunica intima (tunic interna): innermost layer, adjacent to lumen, Tunica media: middle layer, smooth muslce and elastic fibers, Tunica adventitia (tunica externa): Outermost layer, adjacent to surrounding tissue

67
Q

Elastic Arteries

A

Larger diameter, more elastic fibers, less smooth muscles, function as pressure reservoirs, tunica media is the largest, elastic layer merges in intima and media

68
Q

Muscular Arteries

A

Medium Diameter, more smooth muscle, fewer elastic fibers, distributes blood to various parts of the body, adventitia is the thickest

69
Q

Arterioles

A

Transports blood from small arteries to capillaries, smallest arteries where the three tunics can be differentiated, capable of vasoconstriction and dilation, terminal end called metarteriole

70
Q

Precapillary Sphincters

A

Last muscle fibers, blocks blood flow to areas of capillary bed

71
Q

Thoroughfare Channel

A

main channel straight through capillary bed

72
Q

Continuous Capillaries

A

No gaps between endothelial cells, less permeable to large molecules than other capillary types (eg. muscle or nervous tissue)

73
Q

Fenestrated Capillaries

A

Have pores, endothelial cells have numerous fenestrae, which are areas where the cytoplasm is absent and plasma membrane is made of a thin porous diaphragm, highly permeable (eg. intestinal villi, ciliary process of eye, choroid plexus, glomeruli of kidney)

74
Q

Types of capillaries

A

Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid

75
Q

Sinusoid Capillaries

A

Large diameter with large fenestrae, less basement membrance (eg. Endocrine glands, liver, bone marrow)

76
Q

Venules

A

Drain capillary network, endothelial cells and basement membrane with a few smooth muscle cells, as diameter of venules increases the amount of smooth muscle increases, postcapillary venules and muscular venules

77
Q

Veins

A

Formed form the union of several venules, thinner tunica interna and media than arteries but thicker tunica externa, less elastic and smooth muscle, contain valves

78
Q

Valves

A

Found in veins greater than 2mm diameter, folds in intima that overlap, more valves in veins of lower extremities used to prevent backflow

79
Q

Varicose veins

A

Dysfunctional valves, mostly in the lower limbs, causes blood pools in veins resulting in swelling, pain and ulcers. Causes include pregnancy and defective valves

80
Q

Vasa Vasorum

A

Blood vessels that supply the walls of the arteries and veins penetrate vessel walls form the exterior

81
Q

Portal Veins

A

2 in-series capillary network. Examples: Hepatic portal veins (GI to spleen to Liver) and Hypophyseal portal vein (hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland)

82
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

From right ventricle into pulmonary trunk, pulmonary trunk divides into left and right pulmonary arteries, two pulmonary veins exit each lung and enter left atrium

83
Q

Systemic Circulation through the arteries

A

Aorta (exits left ventricle and is divided into 3 parts), 1. Ascending aorta: Right and Left coronary arteries branch from here 2. Aortic arch: extends backwards and branches into brachiocephalic, left common and left subclavian 3. Descending aorta: Thoracic aorta and abdominal aorta

84
Q

Systemic Circulation through the veins

A

Major veins: Coronary sinus, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, can be superficial, deep or sinuses

85
Q

Def: Blood Flow

A

Volume of blood that flows through any tissue in any given time period

86
Q

Def: Pressure

A

force per unit surface area (blood pushing against blood vessel walls) - mean arterial pressure (driving pressure)

87
Q

Def: Resistance

A

Opposing force to the normal blood flow

88
Q

Relationship between flow, pressure and resistance

A

flow= change in pressure/ resistance

89
Q

Calculation for mean arterial pressure

A

1/3(SBP-DBP) +DBP

90
Q

Where does the greatest drop in blood pressure occur

A

In the arterioles, no large fluctuations in capillaries and veins

91
Q

Laminar flow

A

Can’t flow, streamlined, outermost layer moves slowest due to friction and center moves fastest

92
Q

Turbulent Flow

A

Non-laminar flow, fluid passes a constricted, sharp turn or rough surface, partially responsible for heart sounds

93
Q

What is a Korotkoff sound

A

The sounds that occur when measuring blood pressure as the blood begins to move back through the arteries

94
Q

Calculation of resistance

A

resistance= (viscosity or blood x length of tube) / diameter of the vessel^4

95
Q

Velocity of blood flow

A

Blood flow is inversely related to cross-sectional area of blood vessels, as well as being affected by pressure

96
Q

Process required for respiration

A

Ventilation (movement of air into and out of the lungs), External respiration ( gas exchange between air in lungs and blood) and internal respiration (gas exchange between the blood and tissues)

97
Q

Respiratory system function

A

regulation of blood pH (Through bicarbonate system), production of chemical mediators (Angiotensin converting enzyme), voice production, olfaction, protection)

98
Q

Upper Respiratory tract

A

External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx

99
Q

Lower Respiratory tract

A

bronchi and lungs

100
Q

Naris

A

External opening to nasal cavity where air enters

101
Q

Hard plate

A

seperates oral and nasal cavities

102
Q

Vestibule

A

made of stratified squamous, with hairs that are used to trap particles

103
Q

Concha

A

A superior, middle, and inferior version, ridges in the walls that help create turbulence and increase surface area for mucus membranes

104
Q

Paranasal Sinuses

A

Frontal sinus and sphenoidal sinus, make skull lighter, lined with mucus membrane, secrete into nasal cavity, also help with speech production

105
Q

Meatuses

A

Superior, middle and inferior versions, passage ways for air to move through located between concha

106
Q

Choana

A

internal naris

107
Q

Cells of nasal cavity

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells, warms air due to vascularity, moistens air and traps dust, cilia move mucus toward pharynx

108
Q

Functions of the Pharynx

A

Passageway for food and air, resonating chamber for speech production, immunological functions

109
Q

Location of the pharynx

A

Extends form choanae to esophagus, 13cm muscular tube

110
Q

Tonsils

A

3 tonsils: pharyngeal, palatine and lingual

111
Q

Regions of the Pharynx

A

Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

112
Q

Soft Palate

A

Made of muscle and mucus membrane that closes nasal cavity when swallowing

113
Q

Uvula

A

Extends off of soft plate and aids in closure of nasal cavity when swallowing

114
Q

Fauces

A

Opening between the oral cavity and the pharynx

115
Q

Nasopharynx

A

Posterior to choanae/ superior to soft plate, passage of air only

116
Q

Oropharynx

A

soft palate to epiglottis, Common passageway for air and food

117
Q

Laryngopharynx

A

epiglottis to esophagus, common passageway for air and food

118
Q

Structure of the Larynx

A

3 unpaired pieces of cartilage, 6 in pairs

119
Q

Unpair cartilage of the larynx

A

Epiglottis, thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage

120
Q

Epiglottis

A

leaf shaped flap of elastic cartilage that covers the larynx will swallowing

121
Q

Thyroid Cartilage

A

AKA adams apple, maintain opening

122
Q

Cricoid Cartilage

A

right of cartilage, maintains opening

123
Q

Paired cartilage of the larynx

A

Arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform

124
Q

Arytenoid Catilage

A

articulates with the cricoid cartilage and attaches to the vocal folds

125
Q

Corniculate Cartilage

A

Articulates with the arytenoid cartilage

126
Q

Cuneiform Cartilage

A

imbedded in ligaments and soft tissue, supports lateral structure of vocal cords

127
Q

Vestibular Folds

A

False vocal cords located adjacent to vocal folds

128
Q

Glottis

A

Vocal opening, includes the opening and vocal folds

129
Q

Trachea Structure

A

12 cm, extends from larynx to T5, 16 - 20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage to support dense regular CT and smooth muscle ( opened at back to accommodate esophagus), lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar which propels matter toward pharynx

anatomy and physiology ii (1 decks)

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