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1
Q

Defining Intelligence:

A

Psychologists define intelligence as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. This concept varies culturally

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2
Q

Spearman

A

Charles Spearman proposed the concept of general intelligence (g), suggesting that individuals who excel in one cognitive area tend to perform well across others.

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3
Q

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

A

Raymond Cattell and John Horn introduced fluid intelligence (Gf), the ability to reason and solve novel problems, and crystallized intelligence (Gc), which involves accumulated knowledge. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory supports both a general intelligence factor and specific abilities, bridging the two concepts.

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4
Q

Multiple Intelligences

A

Howard Gardner’s theory proposes eight (or nine) distinct intelligences, such as linguistic and logical-mathematical, suggesting that different individuals possess various strengths. Critics argue about the practical implications of this theory, particularly regarding learning styles.

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5
Q

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

A

Robert Sternberg emphasizes three intelligences: analytical (academic problem-solving), creative (innovation), and practical (everyday tasks). Both Gardner and Sternberg highlight the importance of diverse abilities in achieving success beyond traditional measures.

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6
Q

General Intelligence and Achievement

A

Despite the focus on multiple intelligences, general intelligence (g) remains a strong predictor of success, including income and academic achievement. Studies show a correlation between intelligence scores and later life outcomes, emphasizing the role of cognitive ability in various complex tasks.

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7
Q

Definition

A

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations, varying significantly across cultures.

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8
Q

General Intelligence (g)

A

Proposed by Charles Spearman, it suggests a core cognitive ability that influences performance across various tasks.

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9
Q

Thurstone’s Critique

A

L. L. Thurstone identified seven distinct mental abilities, arguing against a single intelligence measure, yet evidence of g persists.

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10
Q

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

A

This model distinguishes between fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc), bridging general and specific abilities.

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11
Q

Multiple Intelligences

A

Howard Gardner’s theory posits at least eight intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical), emphasizing diverse strengths, though its practical application faces scrutiny.

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12
Q

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

A

Robert Sternberg’s framework includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence, underscoring that success involves more than academic skills.

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13
Q

Impact of general intelligence

A

General intelligence strongly predicts life outcomes, including academic success and income, highlighting its significance in various domains.

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14
Q

Intelligence Tests:

A

Intelligence Tests: These assess mental aptitudes and provide numerical scores to compare individuals’ abilities. Psychologists design these tests to ensure they measure cognitive abilities reliably and validly.

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15
Q

Achievement Tests

A

Achievement Tests: Reflect what a person has learned (e.g., final exams).

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16
Q

Aptitude Tests:

A

Aptitude Tests: Predict future learning capabilities (e.g., entrance exams). These tests often correlate strongly with intelligence test scores, indicating a relationship between general intelligence and learning ability.

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17
Q

Francis Galton:

A

Francis Galton: Initiated efforts to measure intelligence through physical and mental traits but found limited success. His work laid the groundwork for statistical methods in psychology.

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18
Q

Alfred Binet:

A

Alfred Binet: Developed the first practical intelligence test in early 20th-century France to help identify children needing educational support. He introduced the concept of “mental age” to measure a child’s intellectual development relative to age norms. Binet emphasized the potential for growth in intelligence rather than fixed capabilities.

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19
Q

Lewis Terman:

A

Lewis Terman: Adapted Binet’s work for the U.S., creating the Stanford-Binet test and introducing the IQ concept, which calculated intelligence as a ratio of mental age to chronological age. However, this formula had limitations for adults, leading to the development of more nuanced intelligence assessments.

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20
Q

Intelligence Tests

A

Intelligence Tests: Assess mental aptitudes and provide scores to compare individuals. They are designed to be reliable and valid measures of cognitive ability.

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21
Q

Types of Tests:

A

Achievement Tests: Measure what a person has learned (e.g., exams).
Aptitude Tests: Predict future learning potential (e.g., entrance exams) and correlate closely with intelligence test scores.

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22
Q

Historical Development: Francis Galton

A

Francis Galton: Attempted to measure intelligence through various traits but faced challenges. His work contributed to statistical methods in psychology.

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23
Q

Historical Development: Alfred Binet

A

Alfred Binet: Created the first practical intelligence test to identify children needing educational support. Introduced the concept of “mental age” to assess intellectual development.

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24
Q

Historical Development: Lewis Terman

A

Lewis Terman: Adapted Binet’s work to the U.S., creating the Stanford-Binet test and introducing the IQ concept, although the initial IQ formula had limitations for adults.

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25
Q

Evolution of Testing

A

Evolution of Testing: The focus has shifted from measuring fixed abilities to understanding and enhancing learning potential.

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26
Q

Heredity and Intelligence

A

Heritability refers to the proportion of variation in intelligence within a group attributed to genetics, estimated between 50% and 80%. However, heritability applies to groups, not individuals.

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27
Q

Twin and Adoption Studies:

A

Twin and Adoption Studies: Identical twins, regardless of being raised together or apart, show high correlations in intelligence scores (0.85 and 0.72, respectively), indicating a strong genetic influence. Fraternal twins (0.60) and siblings (0.45) exhibit lower correlations, emphasizing the role of shared genetics.

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28
Q

Brain Similarities

A

Brain Similarities: Neuroimaging reveals that identical twins have similar brain structures and activity related to intelligence.

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29
Q

Genetic Contribution

A

Genetic Contributions: While many genes are linked to intelligence, these account for only a small percentage of variations in educational achievement, highlighting the polygenic nature of intelligence.

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30
Q

Environmental Impact:

A

Environmental Impact: Shared environments can modestly affect intelligence. Studies show that children adopted from impoverished backgrounds into wealthier families typically see an increase in IQ scores.

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31
Q

Adoption Studies

A

Adoption Studies: Adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents’ intelligence scores more over time, suggesting that genetic factors become more pronounced as they age.

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32
Q

Experience Accumulation

A

Experience Accumulation: As individuals gain life experience, genetic influences on intelligence also appear to strengthen, with heritability increasing from childhood into adulthood.

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33
Q

What Is Personality?

A

Personality refers to our characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Various theories contribute to our understanding of personality

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34
Q

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud):

A

Focuses on childhood experiences and unconscious motivations.

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35
Q

Humanistic Theories:

A

Emphasize inner growth and self-fulfillment

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36
Q

Trait Theories

A

Analyze characteristic behavior patterns.

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37
Q

Social-Cognitive Theories

A

Examine the interplay between traits and social context.

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38
Q

Psychodynamic Theories

A

Psychodynamic theories view personality as influenced by the interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind, stemming from Freud’s psychoanalysis, which brought attention to the unconscious.

39
Q

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective

A

Freud believed that psychological disorders often had psychological rather than neurological roots. His work with patients revealed that unexplained symptoms might stem from repressed memories or fears. He developed free association as a therapeutic technique, allowing patients to express thoughts freely to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Freud posited that the mind operates like an iceberg, with most of it hidden below the surface (the unconscious), while only a small portion is visible (the conscious). The unconscious contains repressed feelings and thoughts that influence our behavior.

40
Q

Freud outlined three components of personality:

A

Id
Ego
Superego

41
Q

Id

A

Id: The instinctual part, driven by the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification (e.g., a newborn’s cries).

42
Q

Ego

A

Ego: The rational part that mediates between the id and reality, operating on the reality principle to find realistic ways to satisfy desires.

43
Q

Superego

A

Superego: The moral compass that internalizes societal ideals, producing feelings of pride or guilt based on behavior.

44
Q

Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages, each focused on different erogenous zones:

A

Oral (0–18 months)
Anal (18–36 months)
Phallic (3–6 years):
Latency (6 years to puberty): Dormant sexual feelings.
Genital (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests.

45
Q

Oral

A

Oral (0–18 months): Pleasure centers on the mouth.

46
Q

Anal

A

Anal (18–36 months): Focus on bowel and bladder control.

47
Q

Phallic

A

Phallic (3–6 years): Focus on genitals; development of sexual feelings and rivalry (e.g., Oedipus complex).

48
Q

Latency

A

Latency (6 years to puberty): Dormant sexual feelings.

49
Q

Genital

A

Genital (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests.

50
Q

Humanistic Theories Overview

A

By the 1960s, psychologists like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers emerged as key figures in humanistic psychology, providing a more optimistic view of personality than the psychodynamic theories focused on conflict and pathology. They emphasized personal growth, self-determination, and self-realization through the study of self-reported experiences.

51
Q

Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person

A

Maslow introduced the hierarchy of needs, suggesting that once basic physiological and safety needs are met, individuals strive for love, esteem, and ultimately self-actualization—the fulfillment of one’s potential. He studied healthy, creative individuals rather than troubled ones, identifying traits of self-actualized people, such as self-awareness, acceptance, and a focus on meaningful tasks.

52
Q

Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective

A

Rogers shared Maslow’s belief in the innate goodness of people and emphasized the importance of a supportive environment for growth. He introduced key concepts such as:

53
Q

Assessing the Self

A

Humanistic psychologists often used questionnaires to explore individuals’ self-concept. For example, they asked people to compare their actual self with their ideal self. A close match indicated a positive self-concept, which is crucial for personal growth.

In summary, humanistic theories shifted the focus from pathology to potential, emphasizing personal growth, self-acceptance, and the importance of supportive relationships in achieving a fulfilling life.

54
Q

Unconditional Positive Regard:

A

Acceptance without conditions, allowing individuals to be themselves without fear of judgment.

55
Q

Genuineness:

A

Being open and transparent in relationships.

56
Q

Empathy

A

Understanding and reflecting others’ feelings.

57
Q

Overview of Social-Cognitive Theories

A

Social-cognitive theories, primarily proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasize the interaction between individual traits and situational factors in personality development. This approach combines elements of behaviorism (conditioning and observational learning) with cognitive processes, highlighting how our thoughts and interpretations of situations shape our behaviors.

58
Q

Reciprocal Determinism

A

Bandura introduced the idea that behavior, internal personal factors (thoughts and feelings), and environmental influences are interlinked and mutually affect each other. For instance, a person’s past experiences can shape their current attitudes and reactions to others.

59
Q

Interaction Types:

A

Choice of Environments:
Interpretation of Events
Creation of Situations
Gene-Environment Interaction

60
Q

Choice of Environments:

A

Individuals select environments that align with their dispositions, which further influences their development (e.g., someone with high self-esteem may seek out social media that reinforces this trait).

61
Q

Interpretation of Events

A

Personalities influence how we perceive and respond to events. An anxious individual might overreact to perceived threats.

62
Q

Creation of Situations

A

Our expectations can shape social interactions, potentially leading to self-fulfilling prophecies.

63
Q

Gene-Environment Interaction

A

Genetic traits can influence how we are treated by others, which in turn can affect our behavior and personality development.

64
Q

Overview of Emotion

A

Emotion involves a combination of three components: bodily arousal, expressive behavior, and cognitive appraisal. These elements interact in complex ways during emotional experiences, as illustrated by various theories in psychology.

65
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

Premise: Bodily arousal precedes and causes emotional feelings. For example, we feel sad because we cry or scared because we tremble. According to this theory, the awareness of physiological responses leads to the experience of emotion.

66
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

Premise: Bodily arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently. Cannon argued that our body’s responses (like a racing heart) do not cause emotions, nor do emotions cause these physiological reactions. Instead, they occur at the same time as a reaction to an emotional stimulus.

67
Q

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

A

Premise: Emotion arises from the combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal. The context in which arousal occurs can influence the emotion experienced; for example, after an invigorating run, one might feel more elated upon hearing good news than after a stressful night.

68
Q

Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus Perspectives

A

Premise: Emotional reactions can occur without conscious cognition. Zajonc suggested that we can have immediate emotional reactions before interpreting a situation. Research indicates that some emotional responses follow a “high road” (cognitive) or a “low road” (immediate, automatic) pathway in the brain, affecting how we perceive and react to stimuli.

69
Q

Interaction of Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition

A

Spillover Effect
Research Evidence

70
Q

Spillover Effect:

A

Emotional responses can be influenced by prior arousal from other events. For example, excitement from one situation can amplify feelings in another.

71
Q

Research Evidence:

A

Studies have shown that individuals with spinal cord injuries report different emotional intensities based on their injury level, suggesting a connection between bodily responses and emotional experience.

72
Q

Expressive Behavior and Emotion:

A

Expressive behavior, such as the smiling faces of dolphins, suggests emotion. Humans communicate emotions through body language, vocal tones, and facial expressions. This raises questions about the universality of nonverbal communication and whether our expressions can influence how we feel.

73
Q

Detecting Emotion in Others:

A

Nonverbal communication varies by culture, but many aspects are universally recognized. For instance, a firm handshake can signal an outgoing personality, while prolonged eye contact can foster intimacy. Studies show that gazing into someone’s eyes can evoke feelings of attraction. Our brains are finely tuned to read subtle emotional cues; for example, just a glimpse of someone’s face can reveal their trustworthiness or status.

74
Q

Sensing Threats and Emotional Cues:

A

Humans are naturally adept at detecting threats, responding quickly to angry or negative facial expressions. Experience shapes our sensitivity to emotions; children who have experienced abuse are more attuned to anger. Additionally, micro-expressions—subtle facial movements—can betray concealed emotions.

75
Q

Gender Differences in Nonverbal Communication:

A

Research suggests women are generally better than men at reading nonverbal cues and expressing emotions. This sensitivity emerges early in development, contributing to women’s greater emotional literacy and complexity in describing feelings. Although both genders can express emotions, anger is often culturally perceived as more masculine.

76
Q

Empathy and Emotional Expression:

A

Women tend to report higher levels of empathy and emotional responsiveness compared to men, partly due to their ability to decode emotions. However, empathy can also lead to a focus on immediate emotional experiences rather than future implications. Engaging with fiction can enhance empathy, especially among women.

77
Q

Basic Emotions:

A

Emotion scientists generally agree on a set of basic human emotions, primarily anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and happiness. Carroll Izard identified ten basic emotions: joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. Other researchers have suggested including pride and love as basic emotions, viewing them as combinations of the original ten.

78
Q

Anger:

A

Causes and Consequences Anger is often described as a “short madness,” prompting a fight response to perceived threats or injustices. It can stem from both intentional misdeeds and minor annoyances. Chronic anger can have harmful effects on health, such as increased heart rate and inflammation.

79
Q

Recommended strategies for anger management include:

A

Wait to let physiological arousal decrease.
Find distractions or supportive outlets.
Distance yourself mentally from the situation.

80
Q

Happiness

A

Effects and Positive Psychology Happiness significantly influences perceptions and behaviors. Happy individuals view the world as safer, are more confident, and tend to be more cooperative and successful. They experience better health, stronger relationships, and greater generosity. The “feel-good, do-good” phenomenon suggests that happiness leads to altruistic behaviors.

81
Q

Definition of Stress:

A

Stress is the process of appraising and responding to challenging or threatening events. It’s not just about the events themselves but how we interpret them. For example, one person may view a job change as an exciting challenge, while another sees it as a threat.

82
Q

Types of Stressors:

A

Catastrophes
Significant Life Changes
Daily Hassles:

83
Q

Catastrophes

A

Major unpredictable events (e.g., natural disasters, terrorist attacks) that can cause long-lasting psychological effects, such as trauma and anxiety.

84
Q

Significant Life Changes

A

Major transitions in life (e.g., marriage, job loss) can induce stress, regardless of whether they are positive or negative.

85
Q

Daily Hassles

A

Minor irritations and everyday pressures (e.g., work stress, social media overload) that can accumulate and have detrimental effects on health.

86
Q

Stress Responses:

A

Stress can lead to both positive outcomes (e.g., motivation, resilience) and negative consequences (e.g., health issues, risky behaviors). Acute stress can mobilize the immune system, while prolonged stress can lead to serious health risks, including heart disease and mental health disorders.

87
Q

Health Impacts:

A

Chronic stress is linked to various health problems, including increased risk of illness and even shortened lifespan. Discrimination and social inequalities further exacerbate stress-related health issues.

88
Q

Perceived Stress Scale

A

This scale helps individuals assess their perceived stress levels, ranging from low to high, based on recent experiences.

89
Q

Coping with Stress

A

People generally cope with stress in two ways: problem-focused coping (addressing stressors directly when they feel a sense of control) and emotion-focused coping (seeking comfort when they feel unable to change a situation). The choice between these strategies can impact health. Emotion-focused coping can sometimes lead to unhealthy behaviors, like overeating.

90
Q

Perceived Lack of Control

A

A lack of control significantly affects health, leading to stress responses that increase vulnerability to illness. Studies show that individuals who perceive less control over their lives experience more health issues and higher mortality rates. This is especially pronounced in older adults and those in stressful work environments.

91
Q

Internal vs. External Locus of Control

A

Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they can influence their outcomes, leading to better health and higher achievement compared to those with an external locus of control, who feel their fate is determined by outside forces. The belief in personal control can decrease stress and improve overall well-being.

91
Q

Building Self-Control

A

Self-control, the ability to manage impulses and delay gratification, is crucial for coping with stress and achieving long-term goals. It can be strengthened through practice, akin to training a muscle. While self-control can be temporarily depleted, it can recover with rest and grow stronger over time.

92
Q

Thurstone

A

In contrast, L. L. Thurstone identified seven primary mental abilities, arguing against a single intelligence score. However, further research indicated that a general intelligence factor still exists alongside specific abilities.

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