test Flashcards
“Which features that isn’t language can you hear in spoken text?”
<ul><li>Intonation</li><li>Loudness, energy</li><li>Tempo</li><li>Rhytm</li><li>Voice quality</li><li>Pauses</li></ul>
“<strong>What is intonation in speech?</strong><span></span>”
<div><strong>Intonation</strong> refers to the rise and fall of pitch in speech which adds emotional nuance and can indicate whether a statement is a question, a statement, or an exclamation.</div>
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<strong>What does loudness in speech convey?</strong>
<div><strong>Loudness</strong> in speech conveys the volume and energy level, which can express emotions like enthusiasm or anger, and helps in adapting communication to the context.</div>
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<strong>How does tempo affect speech?</strong>
“<span> </span><strong>Tempo</strong><span> in speech, or the speed at which someone speaks, can convey feelings like excitement, urgency, or calmness. It is often adjusted based on the listener’s characteristics or the context.</span>”
“<strong>What is rhythm in speech?</strong><span></span>”
“<strong>Rhythm</strong><span> involves the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech. It is typical for a language and variations can provide clues about a speaker’s background or emotional state.</span>”
<strong>How does voice quality impact communication?</strong>
“<strong>Voice quality</strong><span> affects how a person’s voice sounds, including elements like pitch, tone, and modulation. It can communicate emotions or characteristics such as confidence or warmth.</span>”
<strong>What role do pauses play in speech?</strong>
“<strong>Pauses</strong><span>, whether filled (like ‘uhm’) or unfilled (silent), are used strategically in speech to convey hesitation, emphasis, or to allow time for the listener to process information.</span>”
Welke dingen zijn er die je kunt zien in non-verbale communicatie?
<ul><li>Gaze patterns</li><li>Hand gestures</li><li>Pointing</li><li>Posture</li><li>Distance</li></ul>
<strong>What do facial expressions communicate in body language?</strong>
“<strong>Facial expressions</strong><span> convey emotions and attitudes, playing a critical role in understanding the emotional context of communication.<br></br><br></br></span>”
<strong>How do gaze patterns function in communication?</strong>
“<strong>Gaze patterns</strong><span> indicate where and how a person looks, signaling attention, interest, and sometimes conveying dominance, submission, or attraction.</span>”
<strong>What role do hand gestures play in communication?</strong>
“<strong>Hand gestures</strong><span> complement or emphasize verbal communication, vary between cultures, and can significantly enhance the clarity and impact of a message.</span>”
<strong>What is the significance of pointing in nonverbal communication?</strong>
“<strong>Pointing</strong><span> serves as a nonverbal method to direct attention or indicate objects, conveying information or expressing ideas without using words.</span>”
<strong>How does posture influence communication?</strong>
<div><strong>Posture</strong>, the position and orientation of the body, can indicate various emotions and attitudes like confidence, openness, or aggression, similar to how facial expressions are processed.</div>
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<strong>What does the use of personal space, or proxemics, indicate in communication?</strong>
“<strong>Proxemics</strong><span>, the use of personal space, varies by cultural norms and can communicate levels of intimacy, formality, or discomfort between individuals during interactions.</span>”
<strong>How do voice and body language interconnect in communication?</strong>
“<span>In communication, signals in one modality, such as </span><strong>voice</strong><span> or </span><strong>body language</strong><span>, are often mirrored in the other, indicating a strong connection between the two. This mirroring can vary in strength due to individual differences, cultural norms, personal communication styles, or the specific context of the interaction.</span>”
“<strong>What is Quintilianus’s perspective on rhetoric in ““Institutio Oratoria””?</strong>”
“<span>Quintilianus, in ““Institutio Oratoria,”” defines </span><strong>rhetoric</strong><span> as the art of persuading an audience, utilizing stylistic tricks, strategic ordering of information, and other rhetorical techniques to effectively communicate and influence.</span>”
<strong>How did rhetoric traditionally focus on oral language?</strong>
“<span>Historically, </span><strong>rhetoric</strong><span> focused primarily on oral language, as exemplified by figures like Cicero, emphasizing the use of speech for effective persuasion and public speaking.</span>”
“<strong>What is ““pronunciatio”” in the context of rhetoric?</strong>”
“<span>In rhetoric, </span><strong>pronunciatio</strong><span> refers to the delivery aspect, which includes not only intonation but also nonverbal communication such as body language, facial expressions, and gestures, integral for effective speech delivery.</span>”
<strong>Why should nonverbal features match the content of spoken utterances in rhetoric?</strong>
“<span>Nonverbal features should match the content of spoken utterances to enhance the authenticity and impact of the message. For example, a happy message should ideally be delivered with a happy voice and facial expression to reinforce the sentiment and persuade the audience effectively.</span>”
<strong>Why is nonverbal communication significant in presidential debates?</strong>
“<span>In presidential debates, the </span><strong>importance of nonverbal communication</strong><span> is crucial as current-day politicians are highly aware of its potential impact.<br></br><br></br>use of voice and body language helps convey messages more powerfully and can significantly influence audiences, highlighting the vital role of nonverbal cues in political communication.</span>”
“<strong>Why is nonverbal communication significant in presidential debates?</strong><span></span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>In presidential debates, the <strong>importance of nonverbal communication</strong> is crucial as current-day politicians are highly aware of its potential impact. Effective use of voice and body language helps convey messages more powerfully and can significantly influence audiences, highlighting the vital role of nonverbal cues in political communication.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
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<strong>What does the statement that nonverbal features account for more than 90% of communication imply, and what are its limitations?</strong>
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The statement that <strong>nonverbal features account for more than 90% of communication</strong> is popularly derived from Mehrabian’s research on emotion recognition with conflicting cues. <br></br><br></br>However, this claim is often misunderstood as it specifically relates to the communication of <b>feelings and attitudes</b>, not to all types of communication. <br></br><br></br>Moreover, the application of this statistic is <b>limited</b> because people can exhibit <b>contradictory nonverbal cues</b>, such as smiling at a funeral, which do not necessarily reflect their true emotions or intentions.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
<strong>Why is the study of nonverbal communication considered a relatively new and paradoxical field?</strong>
<div>The study of <strong>nonverbal communication</strong> is considered relatively new and paradoxical because while there is a<b> strong intuition </b>that nonverbal features significantly influence communication, the actual extent of their impact is only beginning to be understood. Historically, the field has been <b>hampered by a lack of tools to effectively record, measure, or analyze</b> these features.</div>
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<strong>What does multimodality mean in the context of human perception?</strong>
“<strong>Multimodality</strong><span> refers to how our perceptual system integrates information from various sensory modalities such as vision, hearing, touch, and taste.</span>”
<strong>How do different modalities in communication affect our perception of experiences such as dining?</strong>
When we eat in a fancy restaurant a dish can taste differen than when you taste the same dish at home or at a fastfood chain.
What can you say about multimodal communication compared to only spoken communication e.g.
“<strong>Multimodal communication</strong><span> is considered the most natural form of human interaction because it involves multiple sensory modalities. Traditionally, speakers observe their addressees and vice versa,<br></br><br></br></span><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>spoken communication without visual contact is still relatively rare, underscoring the innate multimodal nature of human communication.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
<strong>How do faces and speech interact to affect our perception of spoken language?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>This visual information from the face significantly influences how we perceive and interpret spoken language, as the coordination of visual and auditory components enhances our understanding and response to communication.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
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<strong>What is the ventriloquism effect and how does it influence our perception?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The <strong>ventriloquism effect</strong> is a perceptual phenomenon where auditory and visual signals, presented from different locations, are perceived as coming from the same source. The brain links the sound to the visual signal, creating a perception that they are spatially related.<br></br><br></br>This strong effect, which humans can hardly suppress, suggests a form of recalibration by the brain to bridge the difference between visual and auditory locations, enhancing the integration of multimodal stimuli.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
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<strong>What is the McGurk effect and how was it discovered?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The <strong>McGurk effect</strong> is a perceptual phenomenon where conflicting visual and auditory signals lead to a third, different perception. For example, when a video of <b>someone</b> <b>saying /ga/ </b>is paired with the <b>sound of /ba/,</b> people often<b> hear /da/.</b> <br></br><br></br>This effect was discovered by accident by McGurk and his assistant John MacDonald while researching how children perceive speech and whether they are more responsive to the face or voice of their mother. The McGurk effect illustrates how our perception integrates and sometimes confuses combined sensory inputs.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
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<strong>What is the Cocktail Party Phenomenon in the context of speech perception?</strong>
<div>The <strong>Cocktail Party Phenomenon</strong> refers to our ability to focus on one person’s speech in a noisy or crowded environment. This ability highlights how our auditory system can selectively attend to a single source of sound among many distractions, a crucial skill for effective communication in social settings.</div>
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“<strong>How does lipreading contribute to speech perception?</strong><span></span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><strong>Lipreading</strong> involves interpreting visual cues from the movements of a speaker’s lips, which significantly aid in speech perception, especially in challenging auditory conditions. This visual information can compensate for poor audio quality or background noise, allowing for better understanding of spoken words.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
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<strong>What are compensatory effects in communication?</strong>
“<strong>Compensatory effects</strong><span> occur when there is noise or interference in one sensory channel (auditory or visual), prompting the other channel to enhance its input to compensate for the missing or unclear information.</span>”
<strong>How do nonverbal communication skills develop in children?</strong>
“<span>As children grow, they not only enhance their verbal skills such as lexicon, grammar, and pronunciation, but they also become more proficient in using and interpreting </span><strong>nonverbal features</strong><span> like voice tone and body language.</span>”
in which order is the acquisition of nonverbal featurs in childrn?
<ol><li>In the <b>womb</b>: Intonation patterns, rhytm and features of the voicee.</li><li>As <b>young infant</b>: infants learn to imitate facial gesturs lik tongu protrusion and mouth opening.</li><li><b>Infants</b>: quickly learn to integrate information coming from different modalitis.</li></ol>
“<span>How do nonverbal features change as a child grows older?</span>”
“<span>1. As a child grows older, </span><strong>nonverbal features</strong><span> become more </span><strong>functional</strong><span>. <br></br><br></br>2. Children learn to associate specific nonverbal forms, like </span><strong>nodding</strong><span> or </span><strong>higher intonation</strong><span> at the end of a sentence, with particular </span><strong>communicative</strong><span> or </span><strong>social functions</strong><span>. <br></br><br></br>3.This change is due to increasing </span><strong>social awareness</strong><span> and exposure to a </span><strong>varied environment</strong><span> (family, school, society).</span>”
“<span>How do biological and physiological factors influence infants’ intonation and rhythm?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Preference for low-ending</strong><span> (lower pitch or frequency) contours is due to </span><strong>air pressure</strong><span> and </span><strong>lung energy</strong><span> decreasing naturally. These factors show that </span><strong>intonation and rhythm</strong><span> are influenced by the </span><strong>innate biological predispositions</strong><span> of infants.</span>”
“<span>How do nonverbal features reveal differences in social awareness among different age groups?</span>”
“<strong>Nonverbal features</strong><span> may reveal differences in </span><strong>social awareness</strong><span> between </span><strong>younger children</strong><span>, </span><strong>older children</strong><span>, and </span><strong>adults</strong><span>. <br></br><br></br>This is a </span><strong>working hypothesis</strong><span> suggesting that as children grow, <i>their use and understanding of nonverbal features evolve</i>, reflecting their increasing social awareness.</span>”
“<span>What evidence suggests a strong genetic, biological basis for nonverbal cues to basic emotions?</span>”
<div> <strong>Work into cues to basic emotions</strong> suggests a strong <strong>genetic, biological basis</strong>:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Baby:</strong> crying when sad</li><li><strong>Dog:</strong> happy when tail moves<br></br><br></br>etc.</li></ul>
<div>What evidence supports the genetic basis for nonverbal expressions, even in blind individuals?</div>
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“<strong>Blind people</strong><span> produce facial expressions similar to those of their family members and to each other, despite lacking visual exposure. This suggests a </span><strong>genetic foundation</strong><span> for nonverbal features.</span>”
“<span>What was the setup of the memory experiment mentioned in the surpris experiment?</span>”
<div> <strong>Participants</strong> are led to believe they are taking part in a memory experiment. The cover story is that the study investigates the <strong>effect of context</strong> and <strong>reading aloud</strong>.</div>
<div><strong>Experiment stages</strong>:</div>
<ol><li>Participants imagine words fitting a specific context (e.g., <strong>organs of the body</strong>).</li><li>They see <strong>10 words</strong> on a screen, shown one by one.</li><li>They <strong>read aloud</strong> the words as soon as they appear.</li><li>They recall as many words as possible afterward.</li></ol>
“<div>What were the two experimental contexts for the word ““liver”” in the surprise experiment?</div>”
“<div>The word ““liver”” appeared in two contexts:</div><ul><li><strong>Normal Context</strong>: organs of the human body</li><li><strong>Surprise Context</strong>: favorite food items for Dutch kids</li></ul><div>This was combined with other questions about <strong>cities</strong>, <strong>pets</strong>, etc.</div><br></br>”
“<span>What was the participant demographic for the surprise experiment?</span>”
“<span>About </span><strong>25 subjects</strong><span> (Dutch) participated in the experiment.</span>”
Wat wordt er bedoeld met verbal en non-verbal/
Verbal = wordy<br></br>Non-verbal = de rest
“Why is body language a thing, but voice language isn’t?”
if voice x language would be a thing, than body language would be sign language.<br></br><br></br>Speech is most of the times intentional communicating while language all different ways of communicating are.
Why is sign language verbal, and body language not?
<div><ul><li>There is a<b> literal translation</b> of expressions/signs, limited things they can refer to, wrong or right) it has “words”</li><li><b>Each sign</b> can be <b>equated</b> to a <b>specific meaning </b>(similar to spoken/written language)</li><li>It is an <b>intentional</b> and <b>structured</b> symbolic body movements that constitute a form of language expression (linguistic nature)</li></ul></div>
“<span>What is the aspects of the </span><strong>conventional pair of form and meaning</strong><span> in linguistics are conventional?</span>”
“<ul><li><strong>Form</strong>: The <b>phonetic</b> or <b>gestural</b> elements of words, such as <i>phonemes</i>, <i>morphemes</i>, or <i>hand movements</i>.<br></br><br></br></li><li><strong>Meaning</strong>: The <b>denotation</b> of a word, which includes <i>objects, actions, or concepts</i> that the word represents, and its syntactic status (how the word functions within the structure of a sentence or phrase).</li></ul>”
“<span>What is meant by </span><strong>denotation</strong><span>?</span>”
“<strong>Denotation</strong><span> is the specific, literal meaning of a word, independent of any emotional or cultural connotations. It refers to what the word directly represents or describes. For example, the denotation of ““to read”” is the action of interpreting written text.</span>”
“<span>What is meant by </span><strong>syntactic status</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Syntactic status</strong><span> refers to the role that a word plays within the structure of a sentence or phrase. It defines how a word functions grammatically, such as being a subject, object, verb, or modifier.</span>”
“<span>How do </span><strong>words</strong><span>, </span><strong>signs</strong><span>, and </span><strong>morphemes</strong><span> function differently in language?</span>”
“<div><strong>Words</strong>, <strong>signs</strong>, and <strong>morphemes</strong> function differently across languages to convey meaning:</div><ul><li><strong>Words</strong>: In languages like English, meanings are conveyed through distinct words (e.g., ““read,”” ““reads,”” ““reading””).</li><li><strong>Morphemes</strong>: In languages like Turkish, meanings are conveyed by adding morphemes (smallest units of meaning) to a root word (e.g., root ““ok”” in ““okuma”” for ““read”” and ““okur”” for ““he/she/it reads””).</li><li><strong>Signs</strong>: In sign languages, meanings are conveyed through signs, which have their own grammar and syntax (e.g., Dutch Sign Language is not a direct translation of spoken Dutch).</li></ul>”
<div>What is unique about <strong>morphemes</strong> in Turkish?</div>
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“<div><strong>Turkish</strong> uses <strong>morphemes</strong> to convey(overdragen) meaning:</div><ul><li>Words are formed by adding morphemes to a root.</li><li>Example: The root ““ok”” (read) can become ““okuma”” (to read) or ““okur”” (he/she/it reads).</li><li>This method, known as <b>agglutination</b>, allows a single root to take on various grammatical and semantic roles by adding different morphemes.</li></ul>”
“<strong>English</strong><span> and </span><strong>Turkish</strong><span> differ in their use of words and morphemes:</span>”
“<ul><li><strong>English</strong>: Uses distinct words for different meanings (e.g., ““read,”” ““reads,”” ““reading””).</li><li><strong>Turkish</strong>: Uses morphemes added to a root to convey different meanings (e.g., root ““ok”” for read, ““okuma”” for to read, ““okur”” for he/she/it reads).</li><li>English words <b>change forms less frequently</b> compared to Turkish, which systematically uses morphemes.</li></ul><br></br>”
“<span>What is a </span><strong>morpheme</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>A </span><strong>morpheme</strong><span> is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It can be a word or a part of a word (like a prefix or suffix) that cannot be broken down further without losing or altering its meaning. For example, in the word ““unhappiness,”” there are three morphemes: ““un-“” (a prefix meaning ““not””), ““happy”” (the root), and ““-ness”” (a suffix meaning ““state of””).</span>”
What are properties of sign language?
<div>Modalities: different ways of expressing language</div>
<div><ul><li>Sign languages are real languages (<b>own grammar and syntax</b>)! Sign language of the NL (NGT) is not signed Dutch (not a direct translation of spoken language)<br></br><br></br></li><li>Signs are <b>conventional</b> (own vocabulary and rules for expression), not mimicry (nabootsen).</li></ul></div>
“<span>What is Neil Cohn’s view on visual language?</span>”
“<span>According to </span><strong>Neil Cohn</strong><span> from the </span><strong>Visual Language Lab</strong><span>, visual language (e.g., in comics) is also considered a </span><strong>language</strong><span> because language is not restricted to spoken or written forms but can manifest in various </span><strong>modalities</strong><span> .</span>”
“what is the role of modality for ‘verbality’?”
modality does not matter for verbality.
“<span>What are the steps of vocal fold/cord vibration in the speech process?</span>”
<ol><li><strong>Vocal folds closed</strong> at the beginning of the speech process.</li><li><strong>Air pressure from lungs</strong> is generated.</li><li><strong>Vocal folds open</strong> due to lung pressure, allowing air to pass through.</li><li><strong>Pressure released</strong> is influenced by muscle tension and emotional state.</li><li><strong>Vocal folds close</strong> again, and the cycle repeats about 100-300 times per second.</li></ol>
“<span>What determines the pitch of the voice?</span>”
“<span>The </span><strong>frequency</strong><span> of the vocal fold vibrations determines the pitch of the voice; </span><strong>heavier vocal folds</strong><span> result in a </span><strong>lower frequency</strong><span> and </span><strong>lower voice</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>How does the tenseness of vocal folds affect sound pitch?</span>”
“<strong>Tenser vocal folds</strong><span> produce </span><strong>higher-pitched sounds</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>How does the size of vocal folds affect their vibration and pitch?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Larger vocal folds</strong><span> vibrate more slowly, resulting in a </span><strong>lower frequency</strong><span> and </span><strong>lower voice</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What causes variations in vocal fold size?</span>”
“<span>Variations in vocal fold size are due to </span><strong>genetics</strong><span> and </span><strong>hormonal changes</strong><span> during </span><strong>puberty</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What non-verbal information affects vocal fold vibration?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Tenseness</strong><span> and </span><strong>size</strong><span> of the vocal folds influence their vibration and the pitch of the voice.</span>”
“<span>How does the position of the tongue affect vowel sounds?</span>”
“<span>The position of the </span><strong>tongue</strong><span> changes the </span><strong>resonance of higher frequencies</strong><span>, resulting in different </span><strong>vowels</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is vowel height and how does it affect vowel sounds?</span>”
“<strong>Vowel height</strong><span> refers to how high the tongue is in the mouth, with different heights producing different vowels.</span>”
“<span>What is vowel backness and how does it affect vowel sounds?</span>”
“<strong>Vowel backness</strong><span> refers to the position of the tongue in the mouth (front/back), influencing vowel sounds.</span>”
“<span>How does lip rounding affect vowel sounds?</span>”
“<strong>Lip rounding</strong><span> involves forming the lips in a circle (rounded vowel) or not (unrounded), affecting the sound of vowels.</span>”
“<span>What is vowel tenseness and how does it affect vowel sounds?</span>”
“<strong>Vowel tenseness</strong><span> refers to stressed/tense vowels, which can change the quality of the vowel sound.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>consonanten</strong><span>?</span>”
“<strong>Consonanten</strong><span> beperken of stoppen de luchtstroom, wat leidt tot hoorbare fricatie of onderbreking.</span>”
“<span>Wat is de </span><strong>plaats van articulatie</strong><span> bij consonanten?</span>”
“<span>De </span><strong>plaats van articulatie</strong><span> verwijst naar waar in het spraakkanaal de luchtstroom wordt beperkt of gestopt om een consonant te produceren.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>bilabiale</strong><span> consonanten en geef voorbeelden?</span>”
“<strong>Bilabiale</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd met twee lippen, zoals </span><strong>p</strong><span>, </span><strong>b</strong><span>, en </span><strong>m</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>labiodentale</strong><span> consonanten en geef een voorbeeld?</span>”
“<strong>Labiodentale</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd met lippen en tanden, zoals </span><strong>f</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>interdentale</strong><span> consonanten en geef een voorbeeld?</span>”
“<strong>Interdentale</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd tussen de tanden, zoals </span><strong>th</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>alveolaire</strong><span> consonanten en geef voorbeelden?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Alveolaire</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd bij de richel achter de tanden, zoals </span><strong>t</strong><span> en </span><strong>d</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>alveo-palatale</strong><span> consonanten en geef voorbeelden?</span>”
“<strong>Alveo-palatale</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd bij het harde gehemelte, zoals </span><strong>j</strong><span> en </span><strong>y</strong>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>velare</strong><span> consonanten en geef voorbeelden?</span>”
“<strong>Velare</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd bij het zachte gehemelte, zoals </span><strong>k</strong><span> en </span><strong>ng</strong><span> in ““going”” en ““uncle””.</span>”
“<span>Wat zijn </span><strong>glottale</strong><span> consonanten en geef een voorbeeld?</span>”
“<strong>Glottale</strong><span> consonanten worden geproduceerd in de keel, zoals </span><strong>h</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat is de </span><strong>wijze van articulatie</strong><span> bij consonanten?</span>”
“<span>De </span><strong>wijze van articulatie</strong><span> beschrijft hoe de luchtstroom wordt gemanipuleerd om hoorbare fricatie of onderbreking te produceren.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>stop</strong><span> of </span><strong>plosief</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>stop</strong><span> of </span><strong>plosief</strong><span> is het blokkeren van het geluid en het vervolgens loslaten.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>fricatief</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>fricatief</strong><span> ontstaat door het vernauwen van de luchtstroom met de tong. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>f</strong><span>, </span><strong>v</strong><span>, </span><strong>s</strong><span>, </span><strong>z</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>affricatief</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>affricatief</strong><span> combineert een orale stop (plosief) en een fricatief. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>tʃ</strong><span> zoals in ““chop””, </span><strong>dʒ</strong><span> zoals in ““judge””.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>liquid</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>liquid</strong><span> laat de luchtstroom over de zijkant van de tong stromen. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>l</strong><span>, </span><strong>r</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>glide</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>glide</strong><span> heeft slechts een milde obstructie en in sommige talen worden deze als klinkers beschouwd. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>w</strong><span>, </span><strong>j</strong><span> zoals in ““yes””.</span>”
“<span>Wat betekent </span><strong>voicedness</strong><span> bij consonanten?</span>”
“<strong>Voicedness</strong><span> verwijst naar het trillen van de stembanden tijdens de productie van een consonant. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>voiced</strong><span> - </span><strong>b</strong><span>, </span><strong>d</strong><span>; </span><strong>voiceless</strong><span> - </span><strong>p</strong><span>, </span><strong>t</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>voiced</strong><span> consonant?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>voiced</strong><span> consonant heeft trillende stembanden. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>b</strong><span>, </span><strong>d</strong><span>, </span><strong>g</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Wat is een </span><strong>voiceless</strong><span> consonant?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>voiceless</strong><span> consonant heeft geen trillende stembanden. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>p</strong><span>, </span><strong>t</strong><span>, </span><strong>k</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Zijn alle klinkers </span><strong>voiced</strong><span> of </span><strong>voiceless</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Alle klinkers zijn per definitie </span><strong>voiced</strong><span>. Voorbeelden: </span><strong>a</strong><span>, </span><strong>e</strong><span>, </span><strong>i</strong><span>, </span><strong>o</strong><span>, </span><strong>u</strong><span>.</span>”
Where can you find the most non-verbal information of <b>speech</b>?
the pitch (a.k.a. intonation)
“<span>What is </span><strong>F0</strong><span> in vocal fold vibration?</span>”
<div><strong>F0</strong> is the fundamental frequency, representing the rate at which the vocal folds vibrate. A lower <strong>F0</strong> corresponds to a lower-pitched voice, while a higher <strong>F0</strong> corresponds to a higher-pitched voice.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How does </span><strong>pitch</strong><span> relate to vocal fold vibration?</span>”
<div><strong>Pitch</strong> is the perception of the frequency of vocal fold vibrations. <br></br><br></br><ul><li>The faster the vibration (higher <strong>F0</strong>), the higher the pitch;</li><li>the slower the vibration (lower <strong>F0</strong>), the lower the pitch.</li></ul></div>
<br></br>
“<span>What is the significance of </span><strong>F0</strong><span> in voice analysis?</span>”
“<strong>F0</strong><span> is crucial in analyzing voice stress and emotional states. <br></br><br></br>Variations in </span><strong>F0</strong><span> can indicate different stress levels, emotional conditions, and even cognitive loads</span><span><span></span></span>”
“<span>What factors affect the </span><strong>fundamental frequency (F0)</strong><span> of vocal fold vibration?</span>”
“<span>Factors affecting </span><strong>F0</strong><span> include the <br></br><br></br><ul><li><span>tension of the cricothyroid muscle,</span></li><li><span>subglottal pressure,</span></li><li><span>vocal fold length,</span></li><li><span>and thickness of vocal folds.</span></li></ul></span>”
“<span>What are the </span><strong>non-verbal aspects</strong><span> of pitch?</span>”
<div>Non-verbal aspects of pitch include:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Pitch accents</strong>: Indicate new, given, or contrastive information.</li><li><strong>Question/assertion</strong>: Rising pitch at the end indicates a question, while a steady drop indicates an assertion.</li><li><strong>Tone of voice</strong>: Conveys attitudes, emotions, or nuances in the speaker’s intention.</li><li><strong>Emotion</strong>: Pitch variation can indicate the speaker’s emotional state.</li></ul>
“<span>What are the </span><strong>verbal aspects</strong><span> of pitch?</span>”
“<div>Verbal aspects of pitch include:</div><ul><li><strong>Lexical stress</strong>: Emphasis on a particular syllable within a word can change its meaning (e.g., ““to address”” vs. ““an address””).</li><li><strong>Lexical tone</strong>: In some languages, pitch variations differentiate between words (e.g., in Mandarin, ““ma”” means mother only with the correct tone).</li></ul>”
“<span>How do you understand </span><strong>non-verbal aspects</strong><span> of pitch?</span>”
<div><div><div>Understanding non-verbal aspects involves comparing them with other linguistic elements, such as <br></br><br></br><ul><li>the overall mood of the conversation,</li><li>syntactic structure,</li><li>meaning,</li><li>and grammatical elements,</li></ul><br></br>to gain a holistic picture of the intended meaning.<br></br></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>What is </span><strong>ELAN</strong><span> used for in non-verbal communication analysis?</span>”
<div><strong>ELAN</strong> is software used to annotate videos by adding explanatory notes or comments. It requires a human annotator and a coding manual, making the process time-consuming and subjective.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What is </span><strong>OpenFace</strong><span> and its primary focus?</span>”
“<strong>OpenFace</strong><span> is facial recognition software that helps automate the annotation of facial expressions. Its primary focus is on facial expressions, often leaving out other aspects of body language.</span>”
“<span>How is </span><strong>VR</strong><span> used in gesture tracking?</span>”
“<strong>VR</strong><span> and related technologies have gesture trackers that can detect and interpret gestures. However, the interpretation of gestures still often requires human understanding.</span>”
<div>What are some key <strong>body language variables</strong> and their indications?</div>
<br></br>
“<ul><li><strong>Muscle tone</strong>: Indicates emotional states or reactions.</li><li><strong>Distance (</strong><span>proximity between individuals during interaction)</span>: Reflects comfort, intimacy, or conversational dynamics.</li><li><strong>Facial expressions</strong>:<ul><li><strong>Eyebrow position</strong>: Can indicate surprise, skepticism, or interest.</li><li><strong>Mouth shape</strong>: Reflects emotions and verbal articulation.</li></ul></li><li><strong>Gaze/attention</strong>: Indicates interest, focus, or distraction.</li><li><strong>Fidgeting</strong>(small/repetitive movements, often unconsciousness): Reflects discomfort, anxiety, or impatience.</li></ul><div>(Note: The list of body language variables is extensive, and researchers do not universally agree on all aspects.)</div>”
“In which 2 ways<span> does </span><strong>information structure</strong><span> manifest itself?</span>”
<div>Information structure manifests itself in two ways:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Discourse units</strong>: Sentences that belong together are organized into chunks, phrases, and marked by boundaries.</li><li><strong>Distinguishing importance</strong>: Important information is distinguished from unimportant information (accents,<div>prominence, emphasis, etc)</div></li></ul>
“<span>What is </span><strong>prominence marking</strong><span> in speech?</span>”
“<span>Prominence marking uses various cues to highlight or emphasize specific words or elements in a sentence.</span>”
“<span>How do speakers of </span><strong>Germanic languages</strong><span> use prominence marking?</span>”
“<div>Speakers may use pitch accents to signal the importance of words:</div><ul><li><strong>Dutch</strong>: “Ik voel me SERIEUS genomen” vs. “Ik voel me serieus GENOMEN” (people respect me vs. people don’t respect me).</li><li><strong>English</strong>: “The kids had lunch. The boys/BOYS were eating an apple.” (only boys vs. also girls).</li><li><strong>Context</strong>: “No, not the RED button, the BLUE button” (emphasizing the contrast).</li></ul>”
“<span>How do speakers use </span><strong>visual cues</strong><span> to signal prominent information?</span>”
“<span>Speakers signal prominent information through visual cues, such as facial variations. <br></br><br></br><ul><li><span>Rapid eyebrow movements (flashes) can play a similar role as pitch accents in emphasizing important information.</span></li></ul></span>”
“<span>What is the connection between </span><strong>pitch</strong><span> and </span><strong>eyebrow movements</strong><span> in communication?</span>”
<div>There is a close connection between pitch and eyebrow movements, with high/raising notes often synchronized with raised eyebrows.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Is there a one-to-one mapping between </span><strong>auditory</strong><span> and </span><strong>visual cues</strong><span>?</span>”
<div>No, there is no one-to-one mapping, but speakers prefer to synchronize verbal cues with visual cues. <br></br><br></br>When they align, it <i>enhances</i> clarity and emphasis of the message. When verbal and visual cues don’t align it may create difficulty in communication.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How do </span><strong>newsreaders</strong><span> align visual and auditory cues?</span>”
“<span>In newsreaders, there is often alignment between visual and auditory cues for prominent information, especially for strong accents, despite speaker variation.</span>”
“<span>How are </span><strong>auditory and visual beats</strong><span> coordinated according to experimental data?</span>”
<div>Experimental data suggest that auditory and visual beats are tightly coordinated. <br></br><br></br>When a speaker <b>produces a visual beat</b> on a word (gesture), some <b>acoustic properties of that word are affected</b>, and the auditory <i>prominence</i> of that word increases.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What were the key </span><strong>results</strong><span> of the reaction times experiment regarding auditory and visual accents?</span>”
<ul><li><strong>Auditory accent</strong>: The strongest cue for perceived accent, with high correct identification rates (94.2% for Maarten, 94.9% for Maandag, 85.8% for Mali).</li><li><strong>Congruent situations</strong>: Received more responses than incongruent ones.</li><li><strong>Visual accent</strong>: Used when the auditory signal was unclear, indicating reliance on visual information.</li><li><strong>Reaction times</strong>: Incongruencies led to significantly longer reaction times, indicating confusion.</li></ul>
Wat waren de uitkomsten in het onderzoek over visuele en audititeve cues?
<ul><li><b>Congruente stimuli</b> worden s<b>neller verwerkt</b> dan incongruente stimuli.</li><ul><li>Met name voor het eerst en derde woord.</li></ul><li><b>Auditieve</b> nadruk, is de <b>sterkste</b> manier van nadruk.<br></br></li><li>Maar in<b> incongruente situaties</b> werden <b>visuele hints </b>meer belangrijk.</li><li>In incongruente situaties, worden met een visuele nadruk leverde meer reacties op, maar er was ook een langere reactietijd.</li></ul>
“<span>Where are the </span><strong>visual cues</strong><span> for prominence located on the face in the </span><strong>vertical dimension</strong><span>?</span>”
<ul><li><strong>Top</strong>: Rapid eyebrow movements (flashes) may play a similar role as pitch accents.</li><li><strong>Mouth area</strong>: Articulators make more exaggerated movements when a prominent or important word is produced.</li></ul>
<br></br>
“<span>Where are the </span><strong>visual cues</strong><span> for prominence located on the face in the </span><strong>horizontal dimension</strong><span>?</span>”
<ul><li><strong>Perceptual</strong>: Observers are more sensitive to dynamic variations in the left part of the face than the right.</li><li><strong>Acoustic/physical</strong>: There is a significant correlation between F0 (pitch) and the left eyebrow. The left side of the face represents the head better than the right side.</li></ul>
“<span>What did Thompson et al. (2004) find about observers’ sensitivity to facial variations?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><strong>Thompson et al. (2004)</strong> found that observers are more sensitive to <strong>dynamic variation</strong> in the <strong>left part of the face</strong> than the right part.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>What conclusions can be drawn from the results of the horizontal dimension study on facial feature recognition?</span>”
<ol><li><strong>Closer distances</strong> improve <strong>recognition accuracy</strong> for facial features.</li><li><strong>Whole face visibility</strong> provides the highest accuracy, followed by <strong>eyes and brows</strong>, with the <strong>mouth area</strong> being the hardest to recognize.</li><li>The <strong>eyes and brows</strong> are more easily recognized at a distance than the mouth area.</li><li>As distance increases, the ability to correctly identify facial features <strong>significantly decreases</strong>.</li></ol>
“<span>What is concluded about the importance of different facial areas for prominence signaling?</span>”
<div><strong>Different facial areas</strong> are not equally important for prominence signaling:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Vertical:</strong> Top is more important than bottom.</li><li><strong>Horizontal:</strong> Left part is more important than right part.</li></ul>
<br></br>
“<span>How do languages differ in terms of their prosody?</span>”
<div>Languages differ in terms of their <strong>prosody</strong> in two main ways:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Prosodic form:</strong> Differences in the timing of <strong>pitch movements</strong>, <strong>pitch range</strong>, <strong>tempo</strong>, etc.</li><li><strong>Prosodic functions:</strong> Differences in the use of <strong>pitch rise</strong> to mark <strong>question intonation</strong>, use of <strong>accent</strong>, etc.</li></ul>
<br></br>
“<span>What are examples of differences in prosodic form?</span>”
<div>Differences in <strong>prosodic form</strong> include:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Timing</strong> of pitch movements</li><li><strong>Pitch range</strong> differences</li><li><strong>Tempo</strong></li></ul>
<br></br>
“<span>What are examples of differences in prosodic functions?</span>”
<div>Differences in <strong>prosodic functions</strong> include:</div>
<ul><li>Use of <strong>pitch rise</strong> to mark <strong>question intonation</strong></li><li>Use of <strong>accent</strong> to indicate emphasis</li></ul>
“<span>What is chunking in prosody?</span>”
“<strong>Chunking</strong><span> in prosody refers to the way speakers group words and phrases into </span><strong>discourse units</strong><span>, making it easier to understand and process spoken language. It involves using prosodic cues like </span><strong>pauses</strong><span>, </span><strong>intonation</strong><span>, and </span><strong>stress</strong><span> to signal the boundaries of these units.</span>”
“<span>What is the difference between plastic and non-plastic languages in terms of accents?</span>”
“<ul><li><strong>Plastic languages</strong><span> are more flexible in moving accents within an utterance, while</span></li><li><strong>non-plastic languages</strong><span> are less flexible.</span></li></ul>”
“<span>How do Germanic and Romance languages differ in their use of accents?</span>”
“<ul><li><strong>Germanic languages</strong><span> (e.g., Dutch, English, German) are generally more flexible (plastic) with accents,</span></li><li>while <strong>Romance languages</strong><span> (e.g., French, Italian, Spanish) are less flexible (non-plastic).</span></li></ul>”
“<span>How are football scores announced differently in English and Italian to reflect the flexibility of accents?</span>”
“<span>n </span><strong>English</strong><span>, football scores are announced with accents that can move within the sentence, e.g., ““Liverpool </span><strong>ONE</strong><span> CHELSEA<b>one</b>.”” In </span><strong>Italian</strong><span>, the accent placement is less flexible, and scores are announced with a more fixed pattern, e.g., ““Rome </span><strong>UNO</strong><span> Juventus <b>UNO</b>.”” This shows that English can emphasize different parts of the sentence more easily than Italian.</span>”
“<span>What </span><strong>compensatory strategies</strong><span> do languages have for accents?</span>”
“<span>Languages may use compensatory strategies such as </span><strong>word order</strong><span> to manage accentuation differences.</span>”
“<span>How is English used in South Africa according to Swerts and Zerbian (2010)?</span>”
<div><strong>English</strong> is used as a <strong>first language (L1)</strong> by a large number of people and as a <strong>lingua franca (L2)</strong> by many who speak different languages as their first language, such as Zulu and various Bantu languages.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How many speakers participated in the task and what languages did they speak of Zwerts and Serbian?</span>”
<div> <strong>20 speakers</strong> participated:</div>
<ul><li><strong>10 speakers</strong> of L1 English (only English)</li><li><strong>10 speakers</strong> of L1 Zulu (both Zulu and English)</li></ul>
“<span>What task did the study participants perform in the experiment involving English and Zulu speakers?</span>”
“<span>Participants described </span><strong>differently colored objects</strong><span> from left to right, focusing on a </span><strong>red cow</strong><span> that appeared in different contexts (contrasting with preceding color or form, and appearing at the end of the list or not).</span>”
“<span>Wat waren de </span><strong>onderzoeksresultaten</strong><span> van Swerts en Zerbian (2010)?</span>”
“<span>Moedertaalsprekers van Engels in Zuid-Afrika gebruiken intonatie en prosodie anders dan niet-moedertaalsprekers.<br></br><br></br>Niet-moedertaalsprekers, zoals Zulu-sprekers, gebruiken <b>intonatie voornamelijk om continuïteit of finaliteit</b> aan te geven, terwijl moedertaalsprekers <b>ook intonatie gebruiken om focus en positie </b>binnen een lijst aan te geven.</span>”
“<strong>Wat wordt bedoeld met ‘Position’ in de context van de uitspraak?</strong>”
“<strong>Position</strong><span> verwijst naar de vraag of de uitspraak definitief klinkt of niet. Eindzinnen kunnen gemakkelijk worden onderscheiden van niet-eindzinnen in </span><strong>Engels</strong><span> en </span><strong>Zulu</strong><span>.</span>”
<div><strong>How is contrastive emphasis marked in English and Zulu?</strong></div>
<br></br>
“<span>In English (native and fluent L2 speakers), <b>contrastive words </b>are marked <b>by emphatic stress.</b> In Zulu and in the English of less proficient L2 speakers, <b>contrastive word</b>s are NOT marked by <b>emphatic stress.</b></span>”
<strong>What is empathic stress?</strong>
“<strong>Empathic stress</strong><span> refers to the increased emphasis placed on a specific word within a sentence to highlight its importance or convey emotion. This emphasis is often achieved through changes in </span><strong>pitch</strong><span>, </span><strong>loudness</strong><span>, or </span><strong>duration</strong><span> of the stressed word.</span>”
<strong>What are contrastive words?</strong>
“<span> </span><strong>Contrastive words</strong><span> are words that are emphasized to distinguish them from other words or ideas in the same context. This emphasis helps to clarify differences or contrasts between items, such as in the sentence, ““I said the </span><strong>RED</strong><span> car, not the blue one,”” where ““RED”” is the contrastive word.</span>”
<strong>What are the implications of mastering intonation and the use of accents according to the research?</strong>
<ol><li><div><strong>Language learning</strong>: Educational programs should focus not only on <strong>phonology, lexicon, and grammar</strong>, but also on <strong>intonation</strong> and the functional use of accents.<br></br><br></br></div></li><li><div><strong>Sociolinguistic implications</strong>: If someone does not master the <strong>intonational rules</strong> of a specific language or uses the rules differently, they will continue to <strong>sound different</strong> from native speakers.<br></br><br></br></div></li><li><div><strong>Goodness of a speaker</strong>: The difference between <strong>good and bad speakers</strong> can be related to the effective use of <strong>accents</strong>.</div></li></ol>
<strong>What are the key conclusions about prosody in language according Zwerts and Serbian (2010)</strong>
<ol><li><div><strong>Languages can differ</strong> in their functional use of <strong>prosody</strong>, but these differences are related to the kind of function, such as <strong>chunking</strong> vs. <strong>prominence</strong>.<br></br><br></br></div></li><li><div>The <strong>prosodic phenomena</strong> of a first language (<strong>L1</strong>) may transfer to a second language (<strong>L2</strong>), especially when the L2 speakers are less fluent. This transfer is referred to as <strong>prosodic traces</strong>.<br></br><br></br></div></li><li><div>Such <strong>prosodic traces</strong> may have <strong>sociolinguistic implications</strong>, affecting how speakers are perceived and how effectively they communicate in their second language.</div></li></ol>
“<span>What are </span><strong>non-verbal cues</strong><span> that are naturally produced?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Non-verbal cues</strong><span> naturally produced include </span><strong>facial expressions, gaze patterns, hand gestures, pointing, posture, and distance.</strong><span> They convey emotions, attitudes, and social signals.</span>”
“<span>What does research involve when studying </span><strong>non-verbal cues</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Research involves studying </span><strong>measurements and theory descriptions</strong><span> to understand </span><strong>non-verbal cues.</strong>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>artificial production</strong><span> in the context of non-verbal cues?</span>”
“<strong>Artificial production</strong><span> refers to making </span><strong>symbolic/manual changes</strong><span> (simple) and </span><strong>deep connectionist changes</strong><span> (more complex) in </span><strong>natural speech</strong><span> to see the effects.</span>”
“<span>What does </span><strong>form</strong><span> refer to in the context of prominence types?</span>”
F<strong>orm</strong> refers to the <strong>cue itself</strong> (e.g., <strong>eyebrow raise, pitch raise/contour</strong>) that makes the voice or body language <strong>stand out</strong> and <strong>more noticeable</strong>.<br></br>
“<span>What does </span><strong>meaning</strong><span> refer to in the context of prominence types?</span>”
“<strong>Meaning</strong><span> refers to the </span><strong>function or purpose</strong><span> of the form, particularly how they </span><strong>contribute to prominence</strong><span> and </span><strong>mark specific information</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>Focus</strong><span> in the context of prominence (meaning) types?</span>”
“<div><strong>Focus</strong> refers to a part of the sentence that has <strong>new and prominent information</strong>. For example, in ““Mark is the expert on deception,”” the focus could be on ““Mark”” to highlight him as the expert among alternatives.</div><br></br>”
“<span>Give an example of a sentence with </span><strong>Focus</strong><span> on different words to provide new information.</span>”
<div><strong>Who</strong> was the expert on deception? <strong>Mark</strong> is the expert on deception.</div>
<ul><li><strong>Mark</strong> is the expert on <strong>deception</strong> (as opposed to another field)</li></ul>
“<span>What is </span><strong>Link</strong><span> in the context of prominence (meaning) types?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Link</strong><span> refers to information that is not new but is given <b>prominence to highlight</b> </span><strong>common ground</strong><span>.<br></br><br></br>For example,</span>What about Marc? Marc is the expert on deception (Mark is what we all know, the<div>rest of the information (“is the expert on deception”) is new and thus the focus)</div>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>Tail</strong><span> in the context of prominence (meaning) types?</span>”
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><strong>Tail</strong> refers to information that is not new and not prominent, often used for <strong>grammatical completeness</strong>. For example, in responding with a complete sentence: ““Yes, I think Marc is the expert on deception.””</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
“<span>What is the role of </span><strong>pitch contours</strong><span> in emphasizing </span><strong>Focus</strong><span>?</span>”
<div><strong>Focus</strong> is emphasized by placing a <strong>pitch peak (H)</strong> on the stressed syllable, making it stand out or sound more important due to the <strong>higher pitch</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How does a </span><strong>Link</strong><span> transition in pitch contours?</span>”
<div>A <strong>Link</strong> involves a pitch pattern where the pitch <strong>lowers</strong> (stretch) and then <strong>rises</strong> (Low*High). This pattern helps to transition smoothly between syllables, creating a distinctive <strong>rhythm and melody</strong> in speech.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How does </span><strong>speech rate</strong><span> affect prominence in speech?</span>”
“<strong>Speech rate</strong><span> slows down on </span><strong>prominent parts</strong><span> to emphasize or give importance to specific elements in speech.</span>”
“<span>What are </span><strong>speech acts</strong><span> in communication?</span>”
“<strong>Taalhandelingeen.<br></br><br></br>Speech acts</strong><span> are actions performed through </span><strong>speech</strong><span>, such as making statements, asking questions, giving commands, and expressing feelings. They go beyond conveying information to include influencing others and expressing emotions.</span>”
“<span>What is the significance of understanding </span><strong>speech acts</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Understanding </span><strong>speech acts</strong><span> helps us interpret the </span><strong>intentions</strong><span> behind what people say and how </span><strong>language shapes our interactions</strong><span>. It reveals the purpose of communication beyond just conveying facts.</span>”
“<span>What is the </span><strong>truth value</strong><span> of </span><strong>speech acts</strong><span>?</span>”
“<div>unlike straightforward statements of fact, speech acts are not easily categorized</div> <div>as true or false. They are more about the performance of an action or the expression of an</div> <div>intention<br></br><br></br>e.g. ““Kun jij niet de suiker aangeven?””, betekent meestal niet dat iemand niet de suiker aan kan geven.</div>”
“<span>What are the main components of </span><strong>prosody</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The main components of </span><strong>prosody</strong><span> include </span><strong>pitch rise</strong><span> (component 1) and </span><strong>intensity and pitch</strong><span> (component 2). <br></br><br></br>These elements help convey emotional nuances and emphasis in speech.</span>”
“<span>What does the ability to say things involve in communication?</span>”
<div>The ability to say things involves understanding the <strong>performative nature of speech acts</strong>, analyzing <strong>prosody components</strong> (pitch rise, intensity, and pitch), and recognizing the <strong>intent</strong> or <strong>emotional valence</strong> behind expressions such as <strong>mockery, disbelief,</strong> and various <strong>emotions</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How does </span><strong>information structure</strong><span> manifest itself in communication?</span>”
“<strong>Information structure</strong><span> manifests itself in two ways: <br></br><br></br><ol><li><span>by distinguishing </span><strong>important information</strong><span> from unimportant information (accents, prominence, emphasis)</span></li><li><span>by grouping sentences that ““belong together”” into </span><strong>discourse units</strong><span> (chunking, phrasing, boundary marking).</span></li></ol></span>”
“<span>What aspects are covered under distinguishing </span><strong>important information</strong><span> in information structure?</span>”
“<span>Distinguishing </span><strong>important information</strong><span> involves using </span><strong>accents, prominence,</strong><span> and </span><strong>emphasis</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What does grouping sentences into </span><strong>discourse units</strong><span> involve in information structure?</span>”
“<span>Grouping sentences into </span><strong>discourse units</strong><span> involves </span><strong>chunking, phrasing,</strong><span> and </span><strong>boundary marking</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>boundary marking</strong><span> in speech?</span>”
“<span>Boundary marking is the practice of speakers marking the end of information units, such as a sentence, phrase, or turn, to indicate a boundary in speech.</span>”
“<span>How do visual cues in text help facilitate the reading process?</span>”
“<span>Visual cues such as </span><strong>punctuation</strong><span> (e.g., full stops, commas), </span><strong>indentation</strong><span>, line breaks, and </span><strong>capitalized words</strong><span> at the beginning of a sentence help visualize the structure of a text and facilitate the reading process.</span>”
<div>What are <strong>local cues and global cues</strong> in speech boundary marking?</div>
<br></br>
“<img></img>”
<div>What is the difference between <strong>local cues</strong> and <strong>global cues</strong> in speech?</div>
<br></br>
<ul><li><strong>Local cues</strong>: Encoded at the very edge of a speech unit</li><li><strong>Global cues</strong>: Stretched over a whole unit</li><li>Global cues allow prediction of upcoming boundaries</li><li>Compare with <strong>turn-taking</strong>: Turn-switches often proceed smoothly without much overlap or delay due to the predictive capacity of prosody</li></ul>
What are auditory cues for boundary marking?
<ul><li><strong>Intonation</strong> (boundary tones, declination)</li><li><strong>Pitch reset</strong></li><li><strong>Durational lengthening</strong> (final word)</li><li><strong>Pauses</strong> (silent or filled pauses)</li><li><strong>Voice quality</strong> (creaky voice)</li></ul>
How can prosodic chunking disambiguate?
“compare it with a mathematical formula:<br></br><br></br>2 + (3x5) means something different than (2+3) x 5.<br></br><br></br>“The man said: the girl is ill” vs “The man, said the girl, is ill”<br></br><br></br>2 different meanings.<br></br><div><div><span>“</span><span>The man</span><span> </span><span>said</span><span>:</span><span> </span><span>the</span><span> </span><span>girl is</span><span> </span><span>ill</span><span>”</span><span> </span><span>vs</span><span> </span><span>“The man,</span><span> </span><span>said</span><span> </span><span>the</span><span> </span><span>girl, is</span><span> </span><span>ill</span><span>”</span></div></div>”
“<span>What is the purpose of the </span><strong>Peps-C programme</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The </span><strong>Peps-C programme</strong><span> provides teaching materials to help children learn how to </span><strong>produce</strong><span> or </span><strong>interpret prosody</strong><span>, including skills like </span><strong>chunking</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What does the sentence ““Chicken fingers and fries”” illustrate in terms of </span><strong>prosodic chunking</strong><span>?</span>”
“<div><div><div><div><div>The sentence ““Chicken fingers and fries”” illustrates how <strong>prosodic chunking</strong> can affect interpretation. Chunking helps distinguish between the intended meanings, such as (a) <strong>food items</strong> like chicken fingers and fries or (b) a <strong>literal combination</strong> of chickens, fingers, and fries.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><br></br><img></img><br></br><br></br></div></div></div>”
What visual cues can indicate boundaries between speech units?
<ul><li><strong>Gaze behaviour</strong> (Argyle & Cook, 1976)</li><li><strong>Body posture</strong> (Cassell et al. 2001)</li><li><strong>Head nods</strong> (during feedback signalling) (Maynard 1987)</li><li><strong>Eyebrow movements</strong> (Cave et al. 1999</li></ul>
<strong>What does the reaction time experiment suggest about combining different information sources?</strong>
<div>The <strong>reaction time experiment</strong> suggests that combining different information sources (such as <strong>audio and visual signals</strong>) is beneficial when these sources complement each other. When the information from both sources works well together, people can respond faster because the information is easier to process.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What happens when information sources do not complement each other?</strong>
“<span>When </span><strong>information sources</strong><span> do not complement each other, it can lead to </span><strong>cognitive overload</strong><span>. This means that the brain has to process too much information at once, making it harder to respond quickly and efficiently. As a result, the </span><strong>reaction time</strong><span> becomes longer, and it takes more mental effort to understand the information.</span>”
<strong>What was the general task in the reaction time experiment?</strong>
“<span>he general task in the </span><strong>reaction time experiment</strong><span> was to ““press a designated button as soon as the end of the stimulus is reached.”” This was applied in both the actual experiment with real </span><strong>audiovisual recordings</strong><span> and a baseline condition with stimuli of variable lengths without finality cues.</span>”
<strong>What were the conditions compared in the reaction time experiment?</strong>
“<span>The conditions compared in the </span><strong>reaction time experiment</strong><span> were </span><strong>audiovisual (AV)</strong><span>, </span><strong>audio-only (AO)</strong><span>, and </span><strong>vision-only (VO)</strong><span>. The </span><strong>reaction times</strong><span> were measured in these different modalities to understand the impact of combining audio and visual information.</span>”
<strong>What were the main findings from the reaction time experiment regarding AV stimuli?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The main findings from the <strong>reaction time experiment</strong> indicated that <strong>AV stimuli</strong> were the quickest in the actual experiment (with real audiovisual recordings) , while in the baseline condition, AV stimuli were the slowest. This suggests that combining modalities helps when the information sources are <strong>complementary</strong>, but leads to <strong>cognitive overload</strong> when they are not .</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<strong>What task were participants asked to perform in the second reaction tim experiment?</strong>
<div>Participants had to <strong>judge</strong> for both <strong>short and long utterances</strong> whether a fragment was <strong>final or not</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What was a key finding regarding end-of-utterance classifications in the second experiment?</strong>
“<span>Observers could make the best end-of-utterance classifications for </span><strong>bimodal stimuli</strong><span>; interestingly, the </span><strong>lowest scores</strong><span> were for </span><strong>audio-only (AO) stimuli</strong><span>, despite receiving a lot of attention in the literature.</span>”
<strong>What was found about the ease of judging non-final vs. final fragments?</strong>
“<strong>participants had too choose if a fragment was final or not.<br></br><br></br>Non-final fragments</strong><span> were easier than final fragments. People may be looking for marked features; if these are absent, they choose a default, non-final classification.</span>”
<strong>How did fragment length affect classification in the second experiment?</strong>
<div> <strong>Longer fragments</strong> were easier than shorter fragments, possibly due to longer exposure to cues.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What was the difference in performance between Audio-Only and Visual-Only stimuli in terms of fragment length?</strong>
“<span>he difference in performance between short and long stimuli was bigger for </span><strong>audio-only (AO) stimuli</strong><span> than for </span><strong>vision-only (VO) stimuli</strong><span>. Results for short and long stimuli were very similar in vision-only conditions.</span>”
<strong>What is a possible explanation for the performance difference between Audio-Only and Visual-Only stimuli?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The existence of more <strong>global auditory cues</strong> (such as declination), whereas visual cues are more <strong>locally encoded</strong>.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<strong>How do people manage their turns in a conversation?</strong>
<div>People take turns: while <strong>person A</strong> is producing speech, <strong>person B</strong> remains silent until it is his/her turn to start talking.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What regulates the switch between speakers in a conversation?</strong>
“<span>The switch between speakers is regulated through a </span><strong>turn-taking mechanism</strong><span>.<br></br><br></br></span>”
“<span>What does smooth interaction in conversation often involve?</span>”
“<span>Smooth interaction involves </span><strong>switching turns smoothly</strong><span>, with minimal </span><strong>overlap in speech</strong><span> and only a few </span><strong>milliseconds delay</strong><span> between turns.</span>”
“<span>What kind of cues speakers and addressees rely on to predict appropriate turn-taking opportunities?</span>”
“<span>They rely on specific </span><strong>cues</strong><span> that can be </span><strong>lexical</strong><span>, </span><strong>syntactic</strong><span>, </span><strong>auditory</strong><span>, or </span><strong>visual</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is the difference between true turns and minor backchannels in conversation?</span>”
“<ul><li><strong>True turns</strong><span> involve active contributions with substantial information, while</span></li><li><span></span><strong>minor backchannels</strong><span> are minimal responses indicating engagement, like nodding or saying ““uhuh””.</span></li></ul>”
“<span>To what extent can backchannel opportunity points be predicted?</span>”
“<div>Backchannel opportunity points can be <strong>predicted</strong> to some extent by identifying specific <strong>cues</strong> in the conversation that indicate a speaker’s willingness to listen or their need for a response.</div>”
“<span>What specific issues arise in predicting backchannel opportunity points?</span>”
<div>The specific issues include:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Variation between individuals</strong>: How much individuals differ in their use of backchannels.</li><li><strong>Implementation in synthetic characters (avatars)</strong>: Whether this behavior can be effectively programmed into avatars to mimic natural human interactions.</li></ul>
“<span>How can the implementation of backchannel behavior in animated characters improve computer systems?</span>”
“<span>The implementation can lead to an </span><strong>improved naturalness</strong><span> of computer systems, making interactions feel more human-like and intuitive.</span>”
“<span>What is the research of Blomsma and colleagues based on?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>Their research is based on the <strong>o-cam paradigm</strong>, which involves participants interacting with what they believe is a live person but is actually a pre-recorded session to study backchannel behavior.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div>What is the basic concept of the <strong>O-cam paradigm</strong> in experiments?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>he </span><strong>O-cam paradigm</strong><span> involves participants interacting via an online session (like Skype or Zoom) where they believe they are seeing a live person. However, they are actually viewing a recording of a confederate. <br></br><br></br>This illusion is created through a scripted introduction, and the participants’ task is to guess which of four similar tangram figures the other person is describing.</span>”
“<span>How was the </span><strong>O-cam paradigm</strong><span> experiment conducted?</span>”
“<span>The </span><strong>O-cam paradigm</strong><span> experiment involved 14 participants who believed they were in a live interaction. They played several rounds, resulting in 6 minutes and 15 seconds of interaction each. The study identified 53 Backchannel Opportunity Points (BOPs) via 10 observers. It was evident that participants varied in their feedback behaviors.</span>”
<div>What measurements were taken in the <strong>O-cam paradigm</strong> experiment?</div>
<br></br>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>Participants were rated on perceived personality traits (Friendliness, Extraversion, Activeness, Dominance) using 6-point scales. Their behaviors were analyzed based on auditory and visual features, which significantly correlated with personality impressions.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>What was discovered about the relationship between behavioral measures and personality impressions in the </span><strong>O-cam paradigm</strong><span> experiment?</span>”
“<span>The study found that behavioral measures, which included auditory and visual features, <b>correlated significantly with perceived personality traits</b>. These measures appeared to be strongly related to impressions of personality, such as Friendliness, Extraversion, Activeness, and Dominance.</span>”
“<span>How were the behaviors of human subjects used in animations in the </span><strong>O-cam paradigm</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The behaviors of human subjects were implemented into an animated character, including both visual and auditory features. A second experiment revealed that different feedback behaviors led to different impressions of the avatar’s personality.</span>”
“<span>What are the potential uses of implementing human behaviors into animated characters?</span>”
“<span>Implementing human behaviors into animated characters can generate different personalities for machines, aid in developing user-specific adaptive systems, help train communicatively deprived individuals <br></br><br></br>(e.g., people with autism or blind people), and improve ““rapport”” between conversation partners through effective feedback signaling.</span>”
“<span>What is Parallel Wavenet by Deepmind (now Google)?</span>”
“<span>Parallel Wavenet directly models the raw audio signal by predicting one sample at a time, conditioned on the previous samples and relevant context.</span>”
“<span>What are the capabilities of </span><strong>Parallel Wavenet</strong><span> in speech synthesis?</span>”
“<span>It can produce </span><strong>highly realistic and natural-sounding speech</strong><span> and is successful in capturing the </span><strong>nuances of the human voice</strong><span> and generating </span><strong>high-fidelity audio</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>speech synthesis</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Speech synthesis</strong><span> is the artificial production of </span><strong>human speech</strong><span>. It converts written text into </span><strong>spoken words</strong><span> using computer algorithms. This technology is used in various applications, such as </span><strong>virtual assistants</strong><span>, </span><strong>navigation systems</strong><span>, and </span><strong>accessibility tools</strong><span> for visually impaired individuals.</span>”
“<span>What advancements in speech synthesis were made in 2024?</span>”
“<span>In 2024, </span><strong>Wavenet</strong><span> continued to be used, but </span><strong>Tacotron 2.0</strong><span> also became prominent, showcasing the dynamic nature of advancements in the field.</span>”
“<span>In 2024, </span><strong>Wavenet</strong><span> continued to be used, but </span><strong>Tacotron 2.0</strong><span> also became prominent, showcasing the dynamic nature of advancements in the field.</span>”
“<span>Tacotron 2.0 consists of an </span><strong>encoder</strong><span> and a </span><strong>decoder</strong><span>. The encoder processes the input text and converts it into a fixed-size </span><strong>context vector (</strong><span>which is a numerical representation of the text.)</span><span>, while the decoder generates </span><strong>mel-spectrograms</strong><span> representing the speech features.</span>”
“<span>How does </span><strong>Tacotron 2.0</strong><span> improve speech synthesis?</span>”
“<span>Tacotron 2.0 provides a </span><strong>holistic approach</strong><span> to speech synthesis, allowing for direct modeling of the </span><strong>text-to-speech</strong><span> conversion process. It enables flexibility in controlling various aspects of speech synthesis, such as </span><strong>prosody</strong><span> and </span><strong>speaking style</strong><span>.</span>”
<div>What limitation does Parallel Wavenet have in terms of controlling speech synthesis aspects?</div>
<br></br>
<div><strong>Parallel Wavenet</strong> excels in producing <strong>natural speech</strong> but may have <strong>limited control</strong> over specific aspects like <strong>prosody</strong> and <strong>speaking style</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What are mel-spectrograms in the context of Tacotron 2.0?</span>”
“<strong>Mel-spectrograms</strong><span> are representations of </span><strong>speech features</strong><span> used by the </span><strong>decoder</strong><span> in </span><strong>Tacotron 2.0</strong><span> to generate the sound output.</span>”
<div>What is the trend in modern speech synthesis models?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>The trend is towards </span><strong>end-to-end models</strong><span>. These models are trained to predict the </span><strong>next part of speech</strong><span> from the given speech. This makes the models good enough to allow for </span><strong>fine-tuning</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is fine-tuning in speech synthesis models?</span>”
“<strong>Fine-tuning</strong><span> involves using the </span><strong>hidden knowledge</strong><span> from a pre-trained model to learn </span><strong>related tasks</strong><span>. This process takes advantage of the </span><strong>hidden representations</strong><span> (black box) within the model. <br></br><br></br>By adjusting the model’s </span><strong>parameters</strong><span> for a specific task or dataset, fine-tuning allows the model to </span><strong>adapt efficiently</strong><span> and transfer its knowledge to new </span><strong>domains</strong><span> or </span><strong>applications</strong><span> like </span><strong>entertainment</strong><span> or </span><strong>education</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is Text-to-Speech (TTS) in speech synthesis?</span>”
“<strong>Text-to-Speech (TTS)</strong><span> is the process of creating </span><strong>artificial speech</strong><span> from </span><strong>written text</strong><span>. It aims to produce the </span><strong>best match</strong><span> between the written words and the spoken output.</span>”
“<span>How do we know if the speech matches the text well?</span>”
“<ul><li>We use a <strong>loss function</strong>. Think of it like a <strong>scorekeeper</strong>. It measures how close the generated speech is to what we want.</li><li><strong>Example</strong>: If you want the speech to say ““Hello”” cheerfully and it says ““Hello”” sadly, the score will be high (bad match). If it says ““Hello”” cheerfully, the score will be low (good match).</li></ul><br></br>”
“<span>Should we include things like tone and emotion in our scorekeeping when using TTS?</span>”
<ul><li>Non-verbal cues are things like <strong>intonation</strong> (voice rise and fall) and <strong>emotion</strong> (happy, sad, etc.). Including these in our scoring helps make the speech sound more natural.</li></ul>
<br></br>
<div>Why are the meanings of non-verbal cues in synthesized speech still random?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>The </span><strong>randomness</strong><span> in the meanings of non-verbal cues is due to the way the technology generates these cues based on the </span><strong>training material</strong><span> received from humans. The system tries to reproduce what it has learned, but it doesn’t always know where to mark the cues accurately, which can affect the </span><strong>naturalness</strong><span> of the speech.</span>”
“<span>What does the </span><strong>focus action</strong><span> mark in synthesized speech?</span>”
“<span>The </span><strong>focus action</strong><span> marks that something is </span><strong>new</strong><span> to the listener. If the focus is on the right mark, the speech sounds </span><strong>natural</strong><span>; otherwise, it sounds </span><strong>robotic</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>How does WaveNet aim to make computer-generated voices more human-like?</span>”
“<span>WaveNet includes </span><strong>intonation, accents, emotion, and other vital layers of communication</strong><span> to deliver a richness and depth to computer-generated voices that earlier systems overlooked.</span>”
“<span>What doubts does Tom Lentz have about systems generating affective states from text alone?</span>”
“<span>Tom Lentz doubts that a system can generate a speaker’s </span><strong>affective state</strong><span> or </span><strong>common ground/shared understanding</strong><span> between speaker and listener with only text. Non-verbal cues necessary for affective states are limited in text, and information about common ground may be less explicit.</span>”
“<span>What are some potential solutions for improving the naturalness of synthesized speech?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><ul><li><strong>Choice of words</strong>: Systems can use specific words to express emotions.</li><li><strong>Previous conversation</strong>: Utilizing information structure from previous interactions can help improve naturalness.</li></ul></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>What are the research questions related to conveying an affective response through a robot’s speech?</span>”
<ol><li>Can people perceive <strong>empathic behavior</strong> from a robot when only the emotions in its speech are used to express empathy?</li><li>Do people prefer an <strong>empathetic voice</strong> from robots or a non-empathetic robotic voice?</li><li>What factors of speech can be related to an <strong>empathetic voice</strong>?</li></ol>
<br></br>
<div>What is the <strong>uncanny valley effect</strong>?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>The </span><strong>uncanny valley effect</strong><span> occurs when humanoid objects appear almost, but not exactly, like real humans, eliciting </span><strong>negative reactions</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What method was used to study the perception of empathy in robotic speech?</span>”
“<span>The method involved an actor varying only </span><strong>prosody</strong><span> (intonation, rhythm, and stress) while speaking through a </span><strong>healthbot</strong><span> and a </span><strong>human</strong><span> speaking, both not visible to the participant.</span>”
“<span>Can people perceive empathic behavior from a robot based on its speech alone?</span>”
“<span>Yes, users preferred an </span><strong>empathetic voice</strong><span> from robots and were able to perceive empathic behavior when only the </span><strong>emotions in the robot’s speech</strong><span> were used to express empathy.</span>”
“<span>What factors contribute to the perception of an empathetic voice in robotic speech?</span>”
“<div>Users recognized additional <strong>emotional nuances</strong> such as <strong>empathy, concern, and encouragement</strong> in the robot’s voice. <br></br><br></br>These factors contributed to their preference for an empathetic voice. Conversely, individuals tended to avoid choosing a robotic voice that <strong>lacked emotions and exhibited monotony</strong>.</div><br></br>”
<div>What do the study results suggest about emotional expressiveness in robotic voices?</div>
<br></br>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The results suggest that <strong>emotional expressiveness</strong> and <strong>variation in the voice</strong> are crucial for <strong>user acceptance</strong> and <strong>preference</strong>.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div>What was the method used to study stress in speech?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>The method involved manipulating </span><strong>stress</strong><span> (as in ““I am stressed””), which could be </span><strong>present, absent, or copied</strong><span> from the participant. The manipulation was done manually by adding </span><strong>wavering in pitch</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What were the conditions regarding stress in the voice in the study?</span>”
“<ol><li><strong>Stress present</strong>: The speech included stress cues.</li><li><strong>Stress absent</strong>: The speech did not include stress cues.</li><li><strong>Stress copied from participant</strong>: The speech mirrored the stress cues present in the participant’s voice.</li></ol>”
<div>What were the results of the study on stress in speech?</div>
<br></br>
“<ul><li><strong>No significant change in stress</strong>: The study found no significant change in stress levels between the conditions (presence, absence, or mirrored affect). This lack of significance might be due to <strong>limitations in the study</strong>, such as a potential power issue or other influencing factors.</li><li><strong>Significant effect in task success</strong>: Participants’ performance on a shared task was influenced by the presence of their own or <strong>mirrored affect</strong>. This implies that <strong>emotional expression</strong>, even if not consciously perceived, had an impact on task success. The emotional cues present in participants’ speech affected their <strong>interaction and collaboration</strong>, leading to differences in performance outcomes.</li></ul>”
“<span>What is Vall-E, and what are its key elements in training?</span>”
“<div>Vall-E is a model developed by OpenAI designed to <strong>mimic any given voice</strong>, including its <strong>emotional nuances</strong>. It can speak in any voice (including its emotion) if given a 3-second example of the desired speaker’s voice. The key elements of the training are:</div><ul><li><strong>Ground truth</strong>: The human speaking target (what the speech should sound like).</li><li><strong>Baseline</strong>: A simple text-to-speech model that lacks the ability to capture the nuances and subtleties of human speech, especially in terms of emotion.</li><li><strong>Prompt</strong>: A 3-second example of the desired speaker’s voice, serving as the training input for the model to learn and replicate the specific voice and emotion.</li></ul>”
“<span>Is a 3-second example of the desired speaker’s voice enough for Vall-E to mimic any voice including its emotional nuances?</span>”
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>While Vall-E is designed to mimic any voice, including its emotional nuances, using only a 3-second example, the effectiveness of this method depends on the complexity of the emotions and the range of nuances in the target voice. The system may capture the general characteristics and some emotional aspects, but it might not fully replicate more complex or subtle emotional nuances that require a deeper understanding of the context and prolonged exposure to the speaker’s voice.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
“<span>Do actors simply copy a whole emotion?</span>”
“<strong>No</strong><span>, actors typically break down emotions into various components. For example, portraying doubt and despair involves understanding and expressing specific elements such as </span><strong>tone, pitch, pacing, and emphasis</strong><span>. It’s a nuanced process that goes beyond merely copying a single emotion in its entirety.</span>”
“<span>Are focus, tail, and common ground predictable in emotional speech?</span>”
“<span>In emotional speech, there can be some predictability in terms of </span><strong>focus, tail, and common ground</strong><span>. Certain emotions may lead to recognizable patterns in speech, like changes in </span><strong>pacing, pitch, or emphasis</strong><span>. However, this predictability is not universal and can vary based on individual differences and contextual factors.</span>”
“<span>Can Vall-E generate or set emotions?</span>”
<div><strong>Vall-E</strong>, developed by OpenAI, can replicate and generate emotions in speech to some extent. The model is trained to mimic the emotional nuances present in a provided 3-second example of a speaker. However, the complexity of emotions and their contextual nature may pose challenges in generating highly nuanced or context-specific emotional expressions.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Can Vall-E incorporate body language?</span>”
“<strong>No</strong><span>, Vall-E, being a text-to-speech model, focuses on generating spoken content and does not have the capability to incorporate or mimic </span><strong>body language</strong><span>. Body language involves visual cues such as </span><strong>gestures, facial expressions, and postures</strong><span>, which fall outside the scope of Vall-E’s capabilities.</span>”
<div>What about other non-verbal speech cues?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Vall-E primarily focuses on replicating vocal aspects, including </span><strong>intonations and emotional cues</strong><span> in speech. However, it does not encompass other non-verbal speech cues like </span><strong>pauses, hesitations, or changes in rhythm</strong><span>, which also contribute significantly to effective communication. The model is limited to the auditory domain and doesn’t account for the full range of non-verbal cues present in human communication.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>metacognition</strong><span>?</span>”
“<div><strong>Metacognition</strong> is the ability of people to <strong>think about their own thinking</strong>. It refers to a person’s <strong>beliefs and knowledge</strong> about their own cognitive processes.</div><br></br>”
“<div>What is the difference between understanding another person’s mental state and your own mental state in metacognition?</div><br></br>”
“<ol><li><div><strong>Understanding another person’s mental state</strong>:</div><ul><li>Studied in the context of <strong>theory of mind</strong>.</li><li>Concerned with developmental or pathological aspects of metacognition.</li><li>The ability to understand that other people have <strong>beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives</strong> that may differ from one’s own.</li><li>Example: <strong>Sally-Anne test</strong> (assessing the ability to look inside another person’s head).</li></ul></li><li><div><strong>Understanding your own mental state</strong>:</div><ul><li>Awareness of one’s own <strong>cognitive processes</strong>, such as memory, attention, problem-solving strategies, and emotional states.</li></ul></li></ol>”
<div>What is the <strong>Sally-Anne test</strong> and what does it assess?</div>
<br></br>
<div>The <strong>Sally-Anne test</strong> assesses <strong>theory of mind</strong> by testing if a child understands that others can have <strong>false beliefs</strong>. Children are asked where Sally will look for a ball after it has been moved while she is absent. Those who have developed a theory of mind understand that Sally will look for the ball where she last left it, not where it actually is.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What is the </span><strong>Tip of the Tongue (TOT) phenomenon</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The </span><strong>Tip of the Tongue (TOT) phenomenon</strong><span> is the feeling of being unable to recall a specific word or piece of information, even though you know it is stored in your memory and feels like it’s just on the brink of being retrieved.</span>”
<div>How does the degree of (un)certainty affect self-presentation in communication?</div>
<br></br>
<div>Differences in confidence levels are reflected in the way speakers present themselves, which is useful for their addressees.</div>
<div><strong>For the speaker</strong>:</div>
<ul><li>It serves as a <strong>face-saving strategy</strong> (not appearing ridiculous if wrong).</li></ul>
<div><strong>For the addressee</strong>:</div>
<ul><li>It <strong>manages expectations</strong> and can make them more prone to asking again or asking someone else.</li></ul>
<br></br>
<div>What are some auditory cues that indicate confidence or uncertainty in speech?</div>
<br></br>
“<li><strong>Linguistic hedges</strong>: Phrases like ““I am not sure, but…”” or ““I think…””</li><li><strong>Filled pauses</strong>: Words like ““uh”” and ““uhm””</li><li><strong>Prosody</strong>: Using question intonation</li><br></br>”
“<span>What are possible visual cues that indicate confidence, uncertainty, or hesitation?</span>”
<div>Visual cues include:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Body language</strong></li><li><strong>Facial expressions</strong></li><li><strong>Gestures</strong></li></ul>
<div>These cues are natural and important ingredients of daily conversations as well.</div>
“<br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br><br></br><div>What does the flowchart by Nelson and Narens (1990) illustrate about metacognitive processes?</div><br></br>”
“<div>The flowchart illustrates the process of answering a question with varying degrees of certainty:</div><ol><li>A question is asked: ““What is the capital of Switzerland?””</li><li><strong>Feeling of Knowing?</strong><ul><li>If yes, proceed to search memory (LTM).</li><li>If no, the answer is ““I don’t know.””</li></ul></li><li><strong>Willing to Search Longer?</strong><ul><li>If yes, continue searching.</li><li>If no, the answer is ““I don’t know.””</li></ul></li><li><strong>Answer Found?</strong><ul><li>If yes, check confidence level.</li><li>If no, continue searching if willing.</li></ul></li><li><strong>Sufficiently Confident?</strong><ul><li>If yes, provide the answer (““That’s Zurich.””).</li><li>If no, continue searching or decide ““I don’t know.””</li></ul></li></ol><div>The flowchart shows how individuals navigate between <strong>certainty, uncertainty</strong>, and <strong>metacognitive awareness</strong> when answering questions.</div>”
“<strong>What is the first stage of Hart’s 1965 experiment on the production of uncertainty?</strong>”
“<span>Answering </span><strong>factual questions</strong><span> using tests like </span><strong>WISC</strong><span>, </span><strong>WAISC</strong><span>, and </span><strong>Trivial Pursuit</strong><span>.</span>”
“<strong>What are FOK-scores in the context of Hart’s 1965 experiment?</strong>”
<div><strong>OK-scores</strong> are subjective ratings about how confident individuals are in their ability to <strong>recognize</strong> the correct answer to a question if presented later.</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>What happens in the third stage of Hart’s 1965 experiment on uncertainty?</strong>”
<div>Participants take a <strong>multiple-choice test</strong> to <strong>recognize</strong> the correct answers, particularly those they were uncertain about initially.</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>What does the term ““Tip of the tongue”” mean in Hart’s experiment?</strong>”
“<div>It refers to cases where individuals say <strong>"”I don’t know””</strong> in the first stage but have a high FOK in the second stage.</div><br></br>”
“<strong>How do filled pauses, delays, and high intonation affect FOK scores in adults during Hart’s experiment?</strong>”
<div>These cues are associated with <strong>significantly lower FOK scores</strong> indicating higher uncertainty.</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>What is the correlation between word production and certainty in Hart’s study?</strong>”
“<span>There is a </span><strong>negative correlation</strong><span>; the more words people produce, the </span><strong>less sure</strong><span> they are.</span>”
“<strong>How do adults and children differ in expressing uncertainty according to Hart’s study?</strong>”
“<span> </span><strong>Adults</strong><span> are more expressive with </span><strong>facial expressions</strong><span> and </span><strong>justifications</strong><span> for their answers, while </span><strong>children</strong><span> are less expressive and more likely to remain </span><strong>silent</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>What visual cues are used to express uncertainty?</strong>
“<strong>Eyebrow movements</strong><span>, </span><strong>smiling</strong><span>, and </span><strong>gaze patterns</strong><span> are visual cues indicating uncertainty.</span>”
<strong>How does smiling affect FOK scores for non-answers in adults versus children?</strong>
“<span>For adults, smiling correlates with </span><strong>higher FOK scores</strong><span> (embarrassment), while for children, it indicates </span><strong>pride</strong><span> in knowing the answer.</span>”
“<strong>What is the conclusion about expressing uncertainty from Hart’s experiment?</strong>”
<div><strong>Speakers</strong> use various <strong>audiovisual cues</strong> to express uncertainty, with <strong>adults</strong> doing so more than <strong>children</strong> due to better <strong>self-presentation skills</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>What were the results for children regarding FOK scores and non-answers in Hart’s experiment?</strong>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>Children had <strong>fewer high FOK scores</strong> for non-answers and were generally <strong>less expressive</strong> than adults.</div></div></div></div></div><div></div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<strong>Why don’t children show facial expressions when uncertain like adults?</strong>”
“<div>Children don’t have the <strong>social skill</strong> to do facial expressions when they don’t know the answer, unlike adults.</div><br></br>”
<strong>What do adults do if they don’t know something?</strong>
<div>Adults <b>justify</b> their <strong>silence</strong>, while children just stay silent.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What are some verbal cues of uncertainty?</strong>
“<strong>High intonation</strong><span>, filled pauses, delay, and using more words.</span>”
<strong>What are some visual cues of uncertainty?</strong>
<div><ol><li>Eyebrow movement,</li><li>smile, </li><li>“funny face”,</li><li>and gaze (looking away from the questioner).</li></ol></div>
<br></br>
“<strong>How do adults’ non-answers differ from children’s in terms of FOK-score?</strong>”
“<span>Adults’ non-answers with filled pauses, delay, high intonation, etc., correspond with a significantly </span><strong>higher</strong><span> FOK score, while children’s do not have such significant patterns.</span>”
<strong>What conclusion is drawn about speakers expressing their level of uncertainty?</strong>
<div> <strong>Speakers</strong> express their level of uncertainty via various <strong>audiovisual cues</strong>, with adults doing this much more than children.</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>What does FOAK stand for?</strong><span></span>”
<div><strong>Feeling of Another’s Knowing</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>How can observers estimate a speaker’s level of uncertainty?</strong>
“<span>Observers can estimate a speaker’s level of uncertainty based on </span><strong>audiovisual cues</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>Are answers or non-answers easier for observers to estimate uncertainty?</strong>
“<strong>Answers</strong><span> are ““easier”” to estimate uncertainty than non-answers.</span>”
<strong>How do unimodal and bimodal stimuli compare in estimating uncertainty?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>Scores for <strong>unimodal stimuli</strong> (sound only and vision only) are good, but scores for <strong>bimodal stimuli</strong> (both sound and vision) are the best.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<strong>What was the task for different speakers/judges in the perception of uncertainty study?</strong>
<div>The task for children vs. adults was to judge the <strong>level of (un)certainty</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>How did children find judging certainty in other children compared to adults?</strong>
<div>Children found it very <strong>difficult</strong> to judge other children on certainty but found it easier to judge <strong>adults</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>How did adults find judging certainty compared to children?</strong>
“<span>Adults found it way easier, but found it easier to interpret for </span><strong>other adults</strong><span> than for children.</span>”
<strong>Who are better judges of uncertainty, adults or children?</strong>
“<strong>Adults</strong><span> are better judges than children.</span>”
<strong>Who are better judged for uncertainty, adults or children?</strong>
“<span> </span><strong>Adults</strong><span> are better judged than children because adults signal their certainty more clearly.</span>”
<strong>What type of data was manipulated in the study of manipulatd data?</strong>
“<span>Answers (1 certain, 1 uncertain) from 5 speakers were selected; words had to have a similar </span><strong>sound shape</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>How were the sound and image manipulated to create mixed stimuli in the study of manipulated data?</strong>
“<span>Sound and image were </span><strong>separated</strong><span> to create combinations of certain and uncertain settings for three variables: filler (absent, present), high intonation (absent, present), and marked facial expression (absent, present).</span>”
<strong>What were the combinations of manipulated stimuli in the experiment of manipulated data<br></br><br></br></strong>
<div>The combinations were:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Face sure, voice unsure</strong></li><li><strong>Face sure, voice sure</strong></li><li><strong>Face unsure, voice unsure</strong></li><li><strong>Face unsure, voice sure</strong></li></ul>
<strong>How many stimuli were created in total in th xprimnt of manipulated data?</strong>
“<span>A total of </span><strong>40 stimuli</strong><span> were created.</span>”
“<strong>What was the experimental procedure for rating the speaker’s confidence level in the experiment of manipulated data?</strong>”
<div>Both original and mixed stimuli were presented to <strong>120 subjects</strong> who rated the speaker’s confidence level on a <strong>7-point scale</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>How many different experiments were conducted, and why in th experiment of manipulated data?</strong>
“<span>Eight different experiments were conducted to ensure subjects would not see the </span><strong>same speaker</strong><span> within one test.</span>”
<strong>What effect did fillers, high intonation, and marked facial expressions have on certainty perception in the experiment of manipulated data?</strong>
<ul><li>Presence of a filler led to a <strong>systematic increase</strong> in perception of confidence level.</li><li>Stimuli with high intonation were perceived as <strong>more uncertain</strong>.</li><li>Stimuli with marked facial expressions were perceived as <strong>more uncertain</strong>.</li></ul>
<strong>What previous work does this study (of manipulatd data) align with regarding incongruent stimuli and visual information?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>This study aligns with previous work on emotion perception showing the <strong>predominance of visual information</strong> (e.g., Mehrabian and Ferris).</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<strong>What is meant by a filler?</strong>
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>A <strong>filler</strong> is a sound or word used to fill pauses in speech, often indicating hesitation or uncertainty. Common examples of fillers include ““um,”” ““uh,”” ““like,”” and ““you know.””</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
<strong>Do cultures differ in the way they produce and interpret cues to uncertainty?</strong>
<div>Yes, cultures can differ in the way they <strong>produce cues</strong> to uncertainty and in how such cues are <strong>interpreted by observers</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>Which cultures were compared in the study by cutural differences?</strong>
“<span>The study compared </span><strong>Dutch</strong><span> speakers with </span><strong>Japanese</strong><span> speakers.</span>”
<strong>Why are Japanese speakers an interesting test case in comparing uncertainty?</strong>
<div>Japanese speakers are interesting because they are often considered to be rather <strong>unemotional</strong> and have a tendency to <strong>avoid uncertainty</strong> more than Western cultures.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What was the task for the subjects regarding the Feeling of Knowing (FOK) scores in the study comparing cultures?</strong>
“<span>Subjects rated their certainty on a scale from </span><strong>0 (not sure)</strong><span> to </span><strong>7 (very sure)</strong><span>, with the task being the same for both Dutch and Japanese adults.</span>”
<strong>What was the method for the perception of uncertainty in the study of comparing cultures?</strong>
“<span>Randomly selected answers with </span><strong>low-FOK</strong><span> and </span><strong>high-FOK</strong><span> ratings from 8 Dutch and 8 Japanese speakers were presented to Dutch and Japanese observers. The task was to rate the speaker’s certainty on a </span><strong>7-point scale</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>How many raters participated and what was their composition?</strong>
“<strong>88 raters</strong><span> participated, with 44 Dutch and 44 Japanese, equally balanced across </span><strong>gender</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>What were the results regarding the ease of judging certainty/uncertainty?</strong>
<ul><li>It was <strong>easier</strong> to judge Dutch speakers’ certain/uncertain answers than Japanese speakers’.</li><li>It was easier to judge <strong>females</strong> than males regarding their confidence levels.</li><li>There was no significant <strong>in-group effect</strong> observed.</li></ul>
<strong>What are the two main effects observed in the study about comparing cultures?</strong>
<ul><li><strong>Difference</strong> between certain and uncertain answers was easier to judge for <strong>Dutch</strong> than for Japanese speakers.</li><li>It was easier to judge <strong>female</strong> speakers than male speakers on their confidence levels.</li></ul>
<strong>What conclusion can be drawn regarding cultural differences and gender in uncertainty perception ?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The study concluded that it is generally easier to judge uncertainty for <strong>Dutch</strong> speakers compared to Japanese speakers, and <strong>female</strong> speakers provide clearer cues of confidence than male speakers, regardless of culture. There was no <strong>in-group bias (scoring people higher from their own culture))</strong>observed in the study</div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<strong>Are there reasons to assume that facial cues to prominence differ between the upper and lower part of the face? Between the left and the right side of the face? Motivate your answer based on what we discussed in the colleges.</strong>
“<div>Yes, there are reasons to assume differences in facial cues to prominence:</div><ul><li><div><strong>Upper vs. Lower Part of the Face</strong>: The upper part of the face, especially the <strong>eyebrows</strong>, is often used to signal prominence. Rapid eyebrow movements (flashes) can play a similar role to pitch accents in speech, signaling emphasis or importance. The lower part of the face, such as the mouth, can also indicate prominence but is more often associated with emotional expressions.<br></br><br></br></div></li><li><div><strong>Left vs. Right Side of the Face</strong>: Observers are more sensitive to dynamic variations in the <strong>left part</strong> of the face compared to the right. This could be because the left side of the face (from the observer’s perspective) is more expressive and connected to the right hemisphere of the brain, which is involved in processing emotions. Studies have shown a significant correlation between pitch and left eyebrow movements, indicating a stronger connection between auditory and visual cues on the left side of the face.</div></li></ul><br></br>”
“<strong>Imagine a speaker who instructs someone else to move an object on a chessboard using phrases like ““Move the object from A2 to A3”” and ““Move the object from A2 to B3.”” What would be the prosodic difference between these two phrases if they would be uttered by a native speaker of English? What do you expect to happen prosodically when the two phrases would be uttered by a native speaker of French in his/her language?</strong>”
“<div><strong>Prosodic Differences in English (Germanic Language):</strong></div><ul><li><strong>Phrase 1: ““Move the object from A2 to A3””</strong>:<ul><li><strong>Intonation</strong>: Relatively flat with a slight rise on ““A3”” to indicate the end of the instruction.</li><li><strong>Stress</strong>: Slight emphasis on ““A3”” to mark the final destination.</li></ul></li><li><strong>Phrase 2: ““Move the object from A2 to B3””</strong>:</li><ul><li><strong>Intonation</strong>: More noticeable rise on ““B3”” to emphasize the different destination and direction.</li><li><strong>Stress</strong>: Contrastive stress on ““B”” in ““B3”” to differentiate it from ““A3.”“<br></br></li></ul></ul><div><strong>Prosodic Differences in French (Romance Language):<br></br></strong></div><ul><li><strong>Intonation</strong>: Generally smoother and less variable than in English. A slight rise on ““A3”” to indicate the end.</li><li><strong>Stress</strong>: French does not use stress for contrast as strongly as English. The phrase would likely have a more even stress pattern.</li><br></br></ul>”
“<strong>Why is spoken communication considered risky business?</strong><span></span>”
<div>Communication via spoken language is not an exact data transfer process; many things can go wrong because:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Speakers</strong> may experience problems expressing themselves.</li><li><strong>Addressees</strong> may not fully understand what a speaker is saying.</li><li>Spoken language is a very <strong>evanescent</strong> phenomenon (speech is immediately gone).</li></ul>
<br></br>
<strong>What are the phases involved in grounding information in spoken dialogue?</strong>
<div>The process of grounding information typically proceeds in two phases:</div>
<ol><li><strong>Presentation Phase</strong>: The current speaker sends a <strong>message</strong> to their communication partner.</li><li><strong>Acceptance Phase</strong>: The receiver signals whether the <strong>message</strong> was understood correctly or not.</li></ol>
<strong>How do conversation partners handle the infinite loop of feedback in spoken communication?</strong>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>Conversants circumvent the infinite loop by <strong>signaling</strong> that they received the feedback correctly, and this signaling cycle continues in a manageable way (Clark, Traum).</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<strong>How do communication partners negotiate information during a conversation?</strong>
<div>Communication partners negotiate information through continuous <strong>signals</strong> on the status of the information being exchanged, similar to teamwork in activities like <strong>dancing</strong> or <strong>playing chess</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
<strong>What are the types of feedback cues used in dialogue?</strong>
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>There are two main types of feedback cues:</div><ul><li><strong>Positive Feedback Cues</strong>: Signals like ““go on”” indicating that there are <strong>no problems</strong> with the information being exchanged.</li><li><strong>Negative Feedback Cues</strong>: Signals like ““go back”” indicating that there are <strong>problems</strong> with the information being exchanged.</li></ul></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
<strong>Why is it more essential to detect go-back signals than go-on signals in spoken communication?</strong>
“<div>It is more essential to detect go-back signals (indicating a ““conflict””) because the consequences of <strong>ignoring</strong> these signals can be significant, leading to larger-scale conversation problems. <br></br><br></br>This is similar to the traffic light metaphor where not stopping at a <strong>red light</strong> (conflict) is more critical than not following a <strong>green light</strong> (confirmation).</div><br></br>”
<strong>What expectation arises from the traffic light metaphor in the context of feedback cues?</strong>
<div>The expectation is that <strong>negative feedback cues</strong> are more <strong>marked</strong> and stand out more compared to positive cues, similar to how a red light stands out more due to the potential consequences of ignoring it.</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>What question arises about prosodic/non-verbal cues in the context of feedback cues?</strong><span></span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The question is how prosodic and non-verbal cues compare to lexico-syntactic cues in indicating <strong>positive</strong> and <strong>negative</strong> feedback.</div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>What is </span><strong>hyperarticulation</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>It is speaking in an exaggerated manner, typically with a slower tempo, louder voice, higher pitch, and more pauses, often used in problematic dialogues.</span>”
“<span>which settings is hyperarticulation commonly observed?</span>”
“<span>In </span><strong>child-directed speech</strong><span>, </span><strong>speech over long distances</strong><span>, and </span><strong>Lombard speech</strong><span> (e.g., speaking louder in a noisy environment).</span>”
“<span>What was the primary focus of </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span> on auditory feedback cues?</span>”
“<span>To examine how people use </span><strong>negations</strong><span> in Dutch to signal problematic dialogue contexts.</span>”
“<span>What were the participants in </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span> asked to interact with?</span>”
<div>Two <strong>speaker-independent spoken dialogue systems</strong> that provided train timetable information.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What types of responses were compared in </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
“<div>Responses to ““Do you want me to repeat the information?”” (go on) and ““Do you want to travel to Amsterdam?”” (go back).</div><br></br>”
“<span>How many participants and dialogues were involved in </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
<div>There were <strong>20 participants</strong> interacting in <strong>120 dialogues</strong> in total.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What is meant by a </span><strong>problematic dialogue context</strong><span> in </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>A situation where there is </span><strong>misunderstanding</strong><span> or </span><strong>communication issues</strong><span>, causing the speaker to elaborate more to clarify the problem.</span>”
“<span>What is meant by a </span><strong>non-problematic dialogue context</strong><span> in </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>A situation where the conversation proceeds </span><strong>smoothly</strong><span> without misunderstandings, requiring less elaboration.</span>”
“<span>How did problematic and non-problematic cases differ in </span><strong>Study 1: Negations in Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
<div>Problematic cases had more elaborate responses with additional information to clarify issues in the conversation.</div>
<br></br>
<div>What are the two types of <strong>verification</strong> questions mentioned in the study about dutch negotions?</div>
“<span>he two types are: ““Do you want me to repeat the information?”” (go on) and ““Do you want to travel to Amsterdam?”” (go back)</span>”
<div>What is the <strong>distribution</strong> of “no” responses analyzed in the study about neegotions in dutch?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>The distribution is analyzed into three types: single no, no with additional information (stuff), and more detailed no responses.</span>”
“<span>Wat gebeurt er met spraak in probleemgesprekken?</span>”
“<span>Mensen praten langzamer, luider, en met meer pauzes.</span>”
“<span>Noem een voorbeeld van probleemspraak.</span>”
<ul><li>Praten met kinderen, schreeuwen naar iemand ver weg, of spreken in een lawaaierige omgeving.</li></ul>
<br></br>
“<span>Wat is kenmerkend voor negatieve feedback in probleemgesprekken?</span>”
Het wordt langzamer en langer uitgesproken.<br></br>
“<ul><li>Wat zijn de verschillende manieren waarop mensen ““nee”” zeggen?</li></ul><br></br>”
“<ul><li>Soms alleen ““nee””, soms ““nee”” met extra woorden zoals ““Amsterdam””.</li></ul><br></br>”
Wat doen mensen in probleemgesprekken met hun antwoorden?<br></br>
Ze voegen meer details toe.<br></br>
“<span>Wat was de taak van de 25 deelnemers in het perceptie-experiment?</span>”
“Ze moesten beoordelen of ““nee”“-uitingen uit probleemgesprekken kwamen.<br></br>”
“<span>Hoe goed konden luisteraars de ““nee”“-uitingen beoordelen?</span>”
“<span>Ze konden dit goed beoordelen, ver boven toevalsniveau.</span>”
“<span>Hoe ziet een ““ga door”” antwoord eruit in de grafiek?</span>”
“<ul><li>Mensen zeggen ““nee dankjewel”” in één vloeiende zin zonder pauze.</li></ul><br></br>”
“<span>Hoe ziet een ““ga terug”” antwoord eruit in de grafiek?</span>”
“<ul><li>Mensen zeggen ““nee”” en daarna extra woorden met pauzes ertussen.</li></ul><br></br>”
“Wat gebeurt er met de pauze na ““nee”” in probleemgesprekken?<br></br>”
“<span>De pauze na ““nee”” is langer.</span>”
“<span>Hoe verandert de toonhoogte (F0) van de extra woorden in probleemgesprekken?</span>”
De toonhoogte (F0) van de extra woorden is hoger in probleemgesprekken.<br></br>
Wat is precies het verschil tussn go-back n go-forward antwoorden?
<ul><li><div><strong>Ga terug (Go back) Antwoorden:</strong> Deze antwoorden geven aan dat er iets moet worden aangepast of heroverwogen. Ze bevatten vaak meer informatie om de situatie te verduidelijken en om duidelijk te maken dat er een probleem is of dat er iets verkeerd is begrepen.</div></li><li><div><strong>Ga door (Go forward) Antwoorden:</strong> Deze antwoorden geven aan dat alles in orde is en dat het gesprek kan doorgaan zonder aanpassingen. Ze zijn vaak korter en bevestigen dat er geen probleem is</div></li></ul>
“<span>What are </span><strong>echoic responses</strong><span> in conversations?</span>”
“<strong>Echoic responses</strong><span> are when people often repeat each other’s words or phrases during conversations.</span>”
“<span>What are the two types of </span><strong>echoic responses</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The two types of echoic responses are priming behavior and conventionalized behavior.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>priming behavior</strong><span> in the context of echoic responses?</span>”
“<strong>Priming behavior</strong><span> is when people unconsciously copy each other’s expressions. For example, if one person uses a specific word or phrase, the other person might repeat it without realizing it.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>conventionalized behavior</strong><span> in echoic responses?</span>”
“<strong>Conventionalized behavior</strong><span> refers to standard actions or expressions commonly used in social interactions, such as greetings like bowing, kissing, or hugging. Mimicking these behaviors follows social norms and expectations.</span>”
“<span>How do </span><strong>echoic responses</strong><span> serve as feedback in conversations?</span>”
“<span>Repeating words or phrases can indicate feedback, showing whether the speaker wants to continue (</span><strong>go-on</strong><span>) or clarify something (</span><strong>go-back</strong><span>).</span>”
“<span>Give an example of a </span><strong>go-on</strong><span> signal using repeated words.</span>”
“<div>A: ““and then you transfer to the Keage line…”” <br></br>B: ““Keage line”” <br></br>A: ““which will bring you to Kyoto station””</div><br></br>”
“<span>Provide an example of a </span><strong>go-back</strong><span> signal with repeated words.</span>”
“<span>A: ““and that is the Keage line…”” <br></br>B: ““Keage line?”” <br></br>A: ““that’s right, Keage line””</span>”
“<span>What was the task given to participants in the study about echoic rsponses in japan?</span>”
“<span>One student instructed another on how to build a specific construction using building blocks, with the goal of making it as similar as possible to a picture only the instructor could see.</span>”
“<span>What was found about the use of repeated utterances for </span><strong>negative feedback cues</strong><span>?</span>”
<div><strong>Negative feedback cues</strong> were more likely to be <br></br><br></br><ul><li>higher in pitch,</li><li>slower in tempo,</li><li>and produced after a longer delay.</li></ul></div>
<br></br>
“<span>How can </span><strong>prosodic features</strong><span> help manage interaction in conversations?</span>”
“<span> </span><strong>Prosodic features</strong><span> can help manage interaction by signaling whether the speaker wants to continue (</span><strong>go-on</strong><span>) or go back and clarify something (</span><strong>go-back</strong><span>).</span>”
“<span>How do the Japanese results on </span><strong>repetitive utterances</strong><span> compare to Dutch data on negations?</span>”
“<span>The Japanese results are in line with the Dutch data, showing that </span><strong>speakers tend to make prosodic differences</strong><span> between </span><strong>go-on</strong><span> and </span><strong>go-back</strong><span> signals.</span>”
“<span>What does the consistency of prosodic cuees in go-on and go-back signals results across different languages suggest?</span>”
“<span>The consistency suggests that these patterns of using </span><strong>prosodic features</strong><span> to manage interaction may be a general characteristic of human communication.</span>”
“<span>What are some common issues with </span><strong>human-machine interactions</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>People sometimes experience problems with a system (car, telephone, computer, radio) because it was not designed in an appropriate way.<br></br><br></br></span><div>A system operates badly if it does not take into account the failings of the human cognitive system and human skills.</div><br></br>”
“<span>What is a good design principle for systems?</span>”
“<span>A good design principle is to </span><strong>“design for error”</strong><span>, considering limitations in attention, consciousness, real-life experiences, and ergonomics.</span>”
“<span>What are </span><strong>spoken dialogue systems</strong><span> (SDS)?</span>”
“<strong>Spoken dialogue systems</strong><span> are systems with which humans are supposed to interact in natural (spoken) language.</span>”
“<span>Why do </span><strong>spoken dialogue systems</strong><span> often face problems?</span>”
<div>SDS often face problems because they are not yet designed to handle the full range of human linguistic skills.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How are SDS typically trained?</span>”
<div>SDS are typically trained with normal speech, not accounting for variations like fast, slow speech, or repetition.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Why will errors remain a problem for future systems?</span>”
“<span>Errors will remain a problem due to noisy conditions, interactions with non-native speakers, or an expanded domain of the system.</span>”
“<span>What are the three main tasks for dialogue managers in SDS systems?</span>”
<div>The three main tasks are to <br></br><ol><li><strong>Prevent errors</strong>,</li><li><strong>Detect errors</strong>,</li><li><strong>Correct errors</strong>.</li></ol></div>
<br></br>
“<span>How can systems </span><strong>prevent errors</strong><span>?</span>”
<div>ystems can <strong>prevent errors</strong> by using optimal dialogue strategies.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How can systems </span><strong>detect errors</strong><span>?</span>”
<div>Systems can <strong>detect errors</strong> using <strong>acoustic and semantic confidence scores</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How can systems </span><strong>correct errors</strong><span>?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>Systems can <strong>correct errors</strong> by using feedback cues and system prompts.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>How many subjects were involved in the audiovisual corpus study :</span><strong>Dutch Interaction with Dialogue System</strong><span>?</span>”
“<strong>9 subjects</strong><span> were engaged in telephone conversations with a speaker-independent train timetable information system.</span>”
“<span>What task did the subjects perform in the study:</span><strong>Dutch Interaction with Dialogue System?</strong><span><br></br></span>”
<div>They had to <strong>query the system</strong> on 7 train journeys, resulting in <strong>63 interactions</strong>.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How was the data collected during the interactions in the study:</span><strong>Dutch Interaction with Dialogue System</strong>”
“<span>Subjects were </span><strong>video-taped</strong><span> and led to believe the data collection was for developing a new video-phone</span>”
“<span>What percentage of the dialogues were successfully completed in</span><strong>Dutch Interaction with Dialogue System</strong><span><br></br></span>”
<div><strong>76%</strong> of the dialogues were successfully completed.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Wat was de </span><strong>onderzoeksvraag</strong><span> in het onderzoek uitgevoerd door Wang et al aan MIT?</span>”
<div>Hoe goed kunnen proefpersonen problematische en niet-problematische fragmenten onderscheiden in human-machin-intractions op basis van video-opnames?<br></br><br></br><br></br></div>
<br></br>
Waaruit bestonden de minimal pairs van Wang et al.
“<span>In dit specifieke onderzoek werden de videoclips zorgvuldig geselecteerd om ““minimal pairs”” te vormen, waarbij elk paar vergelijkbare uitingen bevatte die plaatsvonden in een problematische en een niet-problematische dialooguitwisseling. De proefpersonen kregen de taak om te raden of de gepresenteerde clip afkomstig was uit een problematische of een niet-problematische context</span><span><span></span></span>”
“<span>Wat was de </span><strong>hypothese</strong><span> in het onderzoek van Wang et al.</span>”
“<span>Proefpersonen kunnen problematische van niet-problematische interacties onderscheiden boven kansniveau door gebruik te maken van audiovisuele cues zoals hyperarticulatie en visuele signalen.</span>”
“<span>Wat waren de </span><strong>onafhankelijke variabelen</strong><span> in dit onderzoek van Wang et al.</span>”
“<ol><li><span>Het <b>type</b> fragment (problematisch of niet-problematisch),</span></li><li><span>het niveau van <b>hyperarticulatie</b>, en</span></li><li><span>de aanwezigheid van <b>visuele cues</b> zoals glimlach, hoofdbeweging, afgewende blik, fronsen, en wenkbrauwheffen.</span></li></ol>”
“<span>Wat was het </span><strong>algemene onderzoeksopzet</strong><span> van de drie perceptie-experimenten?</span>”
“<div>Proefpersonen bekeken videoclips van menselijke-machine interacties en moesten bepalen of elk fragment problematisch of niet-problematisch was. De experimenten waren onderverdeeld in drie typen:</div><ul><li><strong>Verificatievragen:</strong> Proefpersonen zagen gebruikers luisteren naar verificatievragen van het systeem (gebruikers zijn stil), wat probleemloos (juist) of problematisch (fout) kon zijn. Ja (op/neer) en nee (links/rechts) zijn bijna aangeboren, bekend vanaf jonge leeftijd.</li><li><strong>Bestemmingsuitingen:</strong> Proefpersonen zagen sprekers een bestemming uiten; dit kon de eerste poging van de spreker zijn (probleemloos) of een correctie als reactie op een verificatievraag over verkeerd herkende of begrepen informatie.</li><li><strong>Negaties:</strong> Proefpersonen zagen sprekers een negatie (““nee””) uiten, wat een reactie kon zijn op een algemene ja-nee vraag of een reactie op een verificatievraag met onjuiste informatie.</li></ul>”
Welke aspecten droegen bij aan het onderscheiden van of eeen fragment uit en problmatisch gesprek kwam of niet?
“de mate van hyperarticulatie en verschilllend visuele ““cues”” zijn positief gecorreleerd met hoe goed mensen onderscheid kunnne makeeen.”
Waarom is het onderzoek van Wang et al. over de manier waarop mensen problematische interacties herkennn relevant?
“<span>In dit specifieke onderzoek betekent dit het gebruik van dynamische variaties in de stem en gezichtsuitdrukkingen van gebruikers om te detecteren wanneer een interactie mogelijk problematisch is. Deze informatie kan vervolgens worden gebruikt om het dialoogsysteem te verbeteren door vroegtijdig problemen te signaleren en erop te reageren, wat de algehele gebruikservaring verbetert.</span>”
Waarom is het gezicht belangrijk, voor het leren herkennen van problematische interacties?
“Omdat een s<span>poken dialogue system daarop in kan spelen voordat de dialoog uberhaupt begonnen is.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>audiovisual prosody</strong><span> believed to reveal?</span>”
“<span>Audiovisual prosody is commonly believed to reveal a speaker’s </span><strong>emotions</strong><span> (e.g., negative vs positive).</span>”
“<span>How do </span><strong>children</strong><span> express their emotions compared to </span><strong>adults</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Children express their emotions more </span><strong>openly</strong><span> than adults. But it is dependent on temper and family background.</span>”
“<span>What happens to a child’s emotional expression as they grow older?</span>”
“<span>As a child grows older, they become less expressive due to </span><strong>internalization</strong><span> and learn to manipulate their expressions due to </span><strong>emotion regulation</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What must participants do for each undisclosed card in the card game?</span>”
“<span>Participants must </span><strong>guess</strong><span> whether each next undisclosed card contains a </span><strong>higher or lower</strong><span> number.</span>”
“<span>What does making ““rational choices”” in the card game imply?</span>”
“<span>Making ““rational choices”” implies </span><strong>3 winning</strong><span> and </span><strong>3 losing</strong><span> games.</span>”
“<span>How many pairs of children participated, and what were their age groups?</span>”
“<span>The game was done with pairs of children: 24 younger children (</span><strong>8-year-old</strong><span>) and 24 older ones (</span><strong>12-year-old</strong><span>).</span>”
“<span>In the perception study of the card game, what did observers have to determine?</span>”
“<span>Observers had to determine for each pair of children whether they had just </span><strong>won</strong><span> or </span><strong>lost</strong><span> a game.</span>”
“<span>According to the results of the card game expriment, which group was more expressive, and in what context?</span>”
“<strong>8-year-old</strong><span> children were more expressive when losing a game, while </span><strong>12-year-old</strong><span> children were less expressive about winning or losing.</span>”
“<span>What were the cross-cultural differences found in the study?</span>”
“<span>Pakistani children were overall more expressive than Dutch children, with winning being more visible than losing in Pakistani children. Different </span><strong>conventions</strong><span> were used to show happy or sad reactions.</span>”
“<span>How did the presence of others affect children’s expressiveness?</span>”
“<span>Children were less expressive when </span><strong>alone</strong><span>.</span>”
What is the <b>pressence effect?</b>
“children lss xpressive when being alon”
<strong>What key question is explored about children interacting with robots?</strong>
<div>Can children interact and collaborate with a robot in a social and intuitive way, and how similar is this to their interactions with peers?</div>
<br></br>
<strong>How many children participated in the experiment of intracting with a robot and what were the conditions?</strong>
“256 children (Dutch and Pakistani) participated in one of three conditions: alone, with iCat, or with a friend.<br></br><img></img>”
“<strong>What was the outcome regarding children’s fun in the experiment where it had to interact with robots.</strong>”
Children had the most fun playing with their peers, the least fun playing alone, and playing with iCat was in between.
“<span>What was the setup of the experiment involving video-mediated interaction with children?</span>”
The setup involved video-mediated interaction where children could either have mutual eye-contact or not. They were always in different rooms but could see each other through a screen.<br></br><br></br>As a control condition there was also research for children in the same room (co-presence)<br></br>
“<span>What were the results of the study about eye gaze in terms of children’s fun levels?</span>”
Children reported having the most fun in the mediated mutual gaze condition, followed by the co-presence condition, and the least fun in the no gaze condition.<br></br><br></br>
“<span>What important effects does mutual eye-gaze have according to the study?</span>”
“<span>Mutual eye-gaze has important effects on perceived social presence, game experience, and player behaviors, even if the eye-gaze is not perfect.</span>”
“<span>What is the debate regarding gender differences in emotions?</span>”
“Alleged gender differences include the <strong>experience</strong>, <strong>expression</strong>, and <strong>perception</strong> of emotions.<br></br><br></br><span>It has often been claimed that </span><strong>women</strong><span> are more </span><strong>emotional</strong><span> than men.<br></br></span><br></br><span>The debate is whether such differences are real and, if so, whether they are related to </span><strong>biological</strong><span> and/or </span><strong>socio-cultural</strong><span> factors.</span>”
“<span>What limitations are mentioned about previous investigations into emotional differences between men and women?</span>”
“<span>Previous investigations have generally been </span><strong>limited</strong><span> and based on stimuli with limited </span><strong>ecological validity</strong><span>, such as </span><strong>still images</strong><span> rather than moving images and </span><strong>acted emotions</strong><span> rather than naturally induced emotions.</span>”
“<span>What have few studies tried to combine regarding emotional differences?</span>”
“<span>Few studies have tried to combine </span><strong>multiple perspectives</strong><span> (experience, expression, and perception) into one integrated approach.</span>”
“<span>What are some </span><strong>Mood Induction Procedures (MIPs)</strong><span>?</span>”
<ol><li><ul><li><strong>Velten method(1968)</strong></li><li><strong>Film</strong> (e.g., Gross and Levenson 1995)</li><li><strong>Music</strong> (e.g., Sutherland et al. 1982)</li><li><strong>Feedback/Social Interaction</strong> (e.g., Staudel and Paetzold 1984, Yinon and Landau 1987)</li><li><strong>Gift</strong> (e.g., Isen et al. 1987)</li><li><strong>Facial expression</strong> (e.g., Leventhal 1980)</li></ul></li></ol>
“<span>What is the </span><strong>Velten method</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The Velten method, developed by </span><strong>M. E. Velten</strong><span> in 1968, is a </span><strong>mood induction procedure</strong><span> used in psychological research. It involves reading a series of self-referent statements designed to elicit a specific mood. Participants read these statements aloud or silently to induce </span><strong>positive</strong><span>, </span><strong>negative</strong><span>, or </span><strong>neutral</strong><span> emotional states. For example, positive statements might include phrases like ““I feel good about myself,”” while negative statements might include ““I feel very down.””</span>”
“<span>What was the focus of Westermann et al. (1996) meta-analysis?</span>”
“<span>The meta-analysis was based on </span><strong>250 studies</strong><span> from </span><strong>22 international journals</strong><span> and evaluated the effectiveness of different </span><strong>Mood Induction Procedures (MIPs)</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>How were the MIPs ordered based on effect sizes (r) according to Westermann et al. (1996)?</span>”
<ol><li><ul><li><strong>Film</strong> [r = 0.738]</li><li><strong>Feedback</strong> [r = 0.494]</li><li><strong>Velten</strong> [r = 0.467]</li><li><strong>Gift</strong> [r = 0.378]</li><li><strong>Music</strong> [r = 0.360]</li><li><strong>Facial expressions</strong> [r = 0.122]<br></br></li></ul></li></ol>
<br></br>
“<span>What are the two parts of the current research on gender-related differences in emotions?</span>”
<div>The two parts are:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Production study</strong></li><li><strong>Perception study</strong></li></ul>
“<span>How many participants were in the production test and what were the moods of the films?</span>”
“<span>There were </span><strong>33 participants</strong><span> (16 males, 17 females) with moods being </span><strong>depressed</strong><span> and </span><strong>elated</strong><span> (positive and negative valency).</span>”
“<span>What was the mood induction procedure in the production test?</span>”
“<span>The mood induction procedure involved </span><strong>7-minute film fragments</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What was the purpose of the production test using the film method?</span>”
The purpose was to study the <strong>influence of mood</strong> on solving <strong>dilemmas.</strong>
“<span>Provide an example dilemma from the production test.</span>”
<ul><li>It is your turn to order at the bakery, but someone else goes before you. What do you do?<ul><li>A: You don’t say a thing, since you have all the time in the world, or</li><li>B: You get angry with this asocial behavior and point out that it is your turn to order.</li></ul></li></ul>
“<span>What do the results of the production test on induced emotions indicate about men and women?</span>”
<div>The results show that:</div>
<ul><li><strong>Men</strong> reported higher levels of <strong>positive emotions</strong> compared to women.</li><li><strong>Women</strong> reported higher levels of <strong>negative emotions</strong> compared to men.</li></ul>
“<span>What stimuli were used in the perception test?</span>”
“<span>The stimuli were </span><strong>66 film fragments</strong><span> (10 seconds each, no sound) taken from viewing and interview steps of each speaker.</span>”
“<span>What did the perception test results indicate about the perceived emotions based on the <b>gender of the speaker</b>?</span>”
<ol><li><li><strong>Men</strong> were perceived to express more <strong>positive emotions</strong> compared to women.</li><li><strong>Women</strong> were perceived to express more <strong>negative emotions</strong> compared to men.</li></ol><br></br>
</li></ol>
“<span>What did the perception test results indicate about the perceived emotions based on the gender of the observer?</span>”
<li><strong>Men</strong> perceived more <strong>positive emotions</strong> compared to women.</li>
<li><strong>Women</strong> perceived more <strong>negative emotions</strong> compared to men.</li>
“<span>What were the key findings in sum from the perception and production test?</span>”
<ul><li>The <strong>film MIP</strong> worked very well (reliable method).</li><li>Systematic (and significant) gender differences were found:<br></br><br></br><ol><li>Women feel induced emotion <strong>stronger</strong>.</li><li>Women display induced emotion <strong>more clearly</strong>.</li><li>Women perceive induced emotion <strong>more accurately</strong>.</li></ol></li></ul>
“<span>What are the key questions in the study on blind people and visual cues?</span>”
<ol><li>Do blind people also exploit visual cues?</li><li>Is the way they express such cues similar to that of sighted people?</li><li>How do visual cues relate to their auditory ones?</li></ol>
“what were the ta<span>What was the main effect for sight in the classification results?</span>sks with the experiment with blind peopl”
“<span>Observers tended to give more correct answers about sighted people (M = .61, SE = .01) than about blind people</span>”
“<span>Which emotion was most often guessed correctly in the study?</span>”
“<span>Happiness</span>”
“<span>How did the emotions rank in terms of correct guesses?</span>”
“<ol><li><span>Happiness (M = .83, SE = .01),</span></li><li><span>sadness (M = .66, SE = .01),</span></li><li><span>anger (M = .44, SE = .01),</span></li><li><span>scared (M = .36, SE = .01).</span></li></ol>”
“<span>Which presentation condition led to the most correct answers?</span>”
“<span>The audiovisual condition (M = .63, SE = .01).</span>”
“<span>How did the audio-only and video-only conditions rank in terms of correct answers?</span>”
<div>Audio-only condition (M = .59, SE = .01)<br></br>video-only condition (M = .49, SE = .01).</div>
<br></br>
“<span>How do blind and sighted people use cues to signal emotions?</span>”
“<span>Both use auditory and visual cues to signal emotions, showing similar behavioral patterns.</span>”
“<span>How do visual cues from blind people compare to those from sighted people?</span>”
<div>Visual cues from blind people tend to be more difficult to judge.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What compensatory effect was found in the study with blind people?</span>”
“<span>Blind people use auditory cues more strongly.</span>”
“<span>What future research question is suggested in the study?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>How about other and more social emotions (e.g. cues to uncertainty)?</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
What is stance?
<div>Attitude you can have towards a message</div>
What kind of stances can you havee/
<div><ul><li><b>Epistemic</b> (“knowledge-y”, e.g. certainty)</li><li><b>Affective</b> (you can feel something about the message)</li><li><b>Emotional</b> (just emotional, not about the message)</li></ul></div>
Which different cues are there for stance?
<div><b>- Verbal cues (examples)</b></div>
<div>* Modal verbs (could, would, should)</div>
<div>* Particles (surely, probably, luckily)<br></br><br></br><b>Not an endless list, just examples</b></div>
<div>- Non-verbal cues</div>
<div>* Facial gestures/prosody</div>
<div>* Audiovisual rosody and feeling of knowing</div>
“<span>How does the number of cues affect the feeling of knowing?</span>”
<div>The more cues, the less feeling of knowing.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Wat waren de </span><strong>onderzoeksresultaten</strong><span> van de studie door Swerts & Krahmer (2005)?</span>”
“<div>De resultaten toonden aan dat <strong>gezichtsuitdrukkingen</strong> en <strong>intonatie</strong> significante indicatoren waren van een persoon’s ““feeling of knowing””, en dat deze signalen door anderen accuraat konden worden herkend en geïnterpreteerd.</div><br></br>”
“<span>Wat was de </span><strong>onderzoeksvraag</strong><span> van Swerts & Krahmer (2005) in hun studie over ““feeling of knowing””?</span>”
“<span>Hoe mensen hun </span><strong>"”feeling of knowing””</strong><span> kunnen uitdrukken en herkennen, en hoe deze samenhangt met non-verbale signalen zoals gezichtsuitdrukkingen en intonatie.</span>”
“<span>Hoe beïnvloeden </span><strong>cues</strong><span> de </span><strong>"”feeling of knowing””</strong><span> en de zekerheid bij zelfevaluatie volgens het onderzoek?</span>”
“<span>Hoe meer </span><strong>cues</strong><span> er zijn, hoe meer </span><strong>onzekerheid</strong><span> er is bij zelfevaluatie van ““feeling of knowing””. Meer cues leiden tot een </span><strong>lagere feeling of knowing</strong><span>. Echter, bij het geven van non-antwoorden (als je zeker weet dat je het antwoord niet weet), leidt meer cues tot een </span><strong>hogere feeling of knowing</strong><span>, omdat je snel ““nee”” kunt zeggen.</span>”
“<span>Wat toont de studie aan over het gebruik van </span><strong>prosodie</strong><span> en </span><strong>intonatie</strong><span> bij het bepalen of een antwoord volledig is?</span>”
<div><strong>Prosodie</strong> (intonatie) helpt bij het bepalen of een antwoord volledig is of niet. Verschillende tonen kunnen een <strong>logische stelling</strong> aangeven, en helpen luisteraars te beoordelen of het antwoord compleet is.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Hoe helpt </span><strong>prosodie</strong><span> bij het opsommen van voordelen?</span>”
“<strong>Prosodie</strong><span> helpt door een lichte </span><strong>intonatieverhoging</strong><span> te gebruiken bij elke nieuwe punt (voordeel), wat de luisteraar helpt begrijpen dat elk punt apart en belangrijk is. De </span><strong>dalende toon</strong><span> aan het einde van de opsomming geeft aan dat de lijst compleet is.</span>”
“<span>Wat is het effect van een </span><strong>intonatieverhoging</strong><span> tijdens het noemen van voordelen?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>intonatieverhoging</strong><span> bij elk voordeel signaleert dat elk punt apart en belangrijk is.</span>”
“<span>Wat geeft een </span><strong>dalende toon</strong><span> aan bij een opsomming?</span>”
“<span>Een </span><strong>dalende toon</strong><span> aan het einde van een opsomming geeft de luisteraar het signaal dat de lijst compleet is.</span>”
“<span>Hoe helpt </span><strong>prosodie</strong><span> bij het geven van een volledig antwoord?</span>”
“<strong>Prosodie</strong><span> helpt door een </span><strong>dalende toon</strong><span> te gebruiken aan het einde van de opsomming, wat aangeeft dat het antwoord volledig is.</span>”
“<span>Wat is de prosodie in een onvolledig antwoord bij een ja/nee vraag met bevestiging?</span>”
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>In het onvolledige antwoord ““Hij heeft de achtergrondinformatie gegeven,”” wordt een lichte stijging of vlakke toon gebruikt, wat aangeeft dat het antwoord mogelijk nog niet volledig is en er meer informatie kan volgen.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
“<span>Wat is een voorbeeld van </span><strong>prosodie</strong><span> in een ja/nee vraag met bevestiging?</span>”
“<span>In het antwoord ““Ja, hij heeft de achtergrondinformatie gegeven, de huidige stand van zaken uitgelegd, en de toekomstige stappen besproken,”” geeft een dalende toon aan het einde aan dat alle punten besproken zijn en het antwoord volledig is.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>irony</strong><span>?</span>”
<div>Irony is a way of using words so that their intended meaning is different from the literal meaning, often to create emphasis or humor.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What is </span><strong>verbal irony</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Verbal irony is when the </span><strong>literal meaning</strong><span> of what is said contrasts with the intended meaning, often for emphasis or humor.</span>”
“<span>How is </span><strong>context</strong><span> relevant to irony?</span>”
“<span>Context helps determine the </span><strong>intended valence</strong><span> (positive or negative tone) of an ironic statement.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>sarcasm</strong><span> and how does it relate to irony?</span>”
“<span>Sarcasm is a subtype of irony that is </span><strong>negative and critical</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What are some </span><strong>tropes</strong><span> related to irony?</span>”
“<span>Tropes related to irony include </span><strong>hyperbole</strong><span> (exaggeration) and </span><strong>understatement</strong><span> (downplaying something).</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>jocularity</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Jocularity is saying things in a </span><strong>fun</strong><span> and </span><strong>playful</strong><span> way.</span>”
“<span>What is a </span><strong>rhetorical question</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>A rhetorical question is asked not to receive an answer but to </span><strong>make a point</strong><span> or </span><strong>create an effect</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is </span><strong>non-verbal irony</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Non-verbal irony refers to a stance or property of a message where the </span><strong>context</strong><span> or </span><strong>co-text</strong><span> indicates an ironic meaning.</span>”
“<span>How do we recognize </span><strong>verbal irony</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Verbal irony is recognized through </span><strong>context</strong><span> and </span><strong>non-verbal cues</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is the difference between </span><strong>context</strong><span> and </span><strong>co-text</strong><span>?</span>”
“<strong>Context</strong><span> refers to the circumstances or environment, while </span><strong>co-text</strong><span> refers to the </span><strong>surrounding text</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What is a </span><strong>stance</strong><span>?</span>”
“<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>A stance is a speaker’s <strong>attitude</strong> or <strong>position</strong> towards a topic, expressed through both verbal and non-verbal communication.</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>”
“<span>What is an example of </span><strong>co-text</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>In the sentence ““I wonder how comfortable the replacement bus service will be,”” the co-text could be ““I already expect it to be a disaster.”” The </span><strong>co-text</strong><span> helps clarify that the statement is </span><strong>ironic</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>Do markers (cues) appear during or after ironic statements?</strong>
“<span>Markers (cues) appear both </span><strong>during</strong><span> and </span><strong>after</strong><span> ironic statements, as shown by the increased presence of visual cues in both stages.</span>”
<strong>What happens to the percentage of utterances with visual cues during ironic statements?</strong>
“<span>The percentage of utterances with visual cues is higher during </span><strong>ironic</strong><span> statements compared to </span><strong>baseline</strong><span> statements.</span>”
<strong>What types of visual cues are more common during ironic statements?</strong>
“<span>During ironic statements, there are more visual cues such as movements in the </span><strong>general face</strong><span>, </span><strong>eyes</strong><span>, </span><strong>eyebrows</strong><span>, </span><strong>mouth</strong><span>, </span><strong>head</strong><span>, and </span><strong>gestures</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>What was the methodology for gathering interactive data on irony?</strong>
“<span>Participants described videos using </span><strong>prompted sentences</strong><span> (e.g., ““These singers have a splendid future in the world of music””) and their responses were annotated for </span><strong>facial movements</strong><span>, </span><strong>gestures</strong><span>, </span><strong>lexical items</strong><span>, and </span><strong>prosody</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>What did the results indicate about irony and visual cues?</strong>
“<span>The results indicated that irony involves more </span><strong>visual cues</strong><span>, leading to a higher perception of irony. When someone is ironic, there are more </span><strong>verbal</strong><span> and </span><strong>non-verbal</strong><span> markers.</span>”
<strong>What prosodic feature is observed when speakers are instructed to be ironic?</strong>
“<span>When instructed to be ironic, speakers show </span><strong>lower pitch</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>Are there consistent pitch changes in naturally occurring irony?</strong>
“<span>In naturally occurring irony, there are </span><strong>often no significant differences</strong><span> in pitch.</span>”
<strong>How does speech rate change when speakers are instructed to be ironic?</strong>
“<span>There is </span><strong>no consistent change</strong><span> in speech rate; some studies show </span><strong>no lower speech rate</strong><span> while others show </span><strong>lower speech rate</strong><span>.</span>”
“<strong>What pitch change is observed in ““dripping sarcasm””?</strong>”
“<span>"”Dripping sarcasm”” is associated with a </span><strong>higher pitch</strong><span>.</span>”
“<strong>What is meant by ““contrast as a cue”” for irony?</strong>”
“<strong>Contrast</strong><span> as a cue means that irony is signaled by a </span><strong>prosodic difference</strong><span> from the surrounding context, rather than by a specific level of prosody. For example, a statement might be ironic if its pitch or tone </span><strong>differs significantly</strong><span> from the usual pattern in that conversation.</span>”
<strong>What is <strong>satirical imitation</strong> in text-level irony?</strong>
“<div>Satirical imitation involves <strong>pretense</strong> and <strong>criticism</strong>. For example, Alec Baldwin speaks <strong>faster</strong> when imitating Donald Trump, who normally speaks slower than Baldwin’s normal voice.</div><br></br>”
<strong>How does speech rate differ when Baldwin imitates Trump?</strong>
“<span>Baldwin’s speech rate is </span><strong>significantly faster</strong><span> when imitating Trump, even faster than his normal speech rate, despite Trump’s normal speech rate being </span><strong>slower</strong><span> than Baldwin’s.</span>”
<strong>Is there a significant difference in pitch spread between Baldwin and Baldwin imitating Trump?</strong>
“<span>No, there is </span><strong>no significant difference</strong><span> in pitch spread between Baldwin’s normal speech and his imitation of Trump.</span>”
<strong>What type of voice is commonly used in satirical speech?</strong>
“<span>A </span><strong>dead-pan voice</strong><span> (lack of emotion/expression) is commonly used in satirical speech.</span>”
<strong>What non-verbal cues did Attardo et al. (2011) find in humorous utterances?</strong>
“<span>The study found differences mainly in </span><strong>smiling</strong><span> and </span><strong>laughter</strong><span> between participants.</span>”
<strong>What are non-verbal cues on stance?</strong>
“<span>Non-verbal cues on stance include </span><strong>epistemic</strong><span> cues like </span><strong>certainty</strong><span> and </span><strong>affective</strong><span> cues like </span><strong>liking</strong><span>.</span>”
<strong>Why are non-verbal cues necessary for recognizing irony without contextual cues?</strong>
“<span>Non-verbal cues are necessary to recognize irony because they help convey the speaker’s </span><strong>true intent</strong><span> when the context is unclear. For example, ““I am very happy to take the train to Tilburg this week”” might rely on non-verbal cues to show irony.</span>”
<strong>What are some non-verbal cues that may indicate irony?</strong>
“<span>The </span><strong>presence of gestures</strong><span> and </span><strong>contrast</strong><span> in speech or behavior may signal irony.</span>”
<div>What is <strong>linguistic copying behaviour</strong>?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>It is when speakers copy </span><strong>linguistic forms</strong><span> (such as words) of their speaking partner.</span>”
“<span>Name some other terms related to </span><strong>linguistic copying behaviour</strong><span>.</span>”
“<strong>Mimicry</strong><span>, </span><strong>alignment</strong><span>, </span><strong>adaptation</strong><span>, and </span><strong>accommodation</strong><span>.</span>”
<div>What features have shown <strong>copying behaviour</strong>?</div>
<br></br>
“<strong>Gestures</strong><span>, </span><strong>facial expressions</strong><span>, </span><strong>syntactic structures</strong><span>, and </span><strong>prosody</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What are </span><strong>immediate forms</strong><span> of mimicry?</span>”
“<span>Forms of mimicry that happen </span><strong>spontaneously and on the spot</strong><span> during interaction.</span>”
<div>How are <strong>immediate forms</strong> of mimicry different from other types?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>They are different from </span><strong>long-term mimicry</strong><span> (e.g., fashion) and </span><strong>stylised or conventionalised mimicry</strong><span> (e.g., greeting behaviour).</span>”
<div>Is the distinction between different forms of <strong>mimicry</strong> always clear?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>No, the distinction between these different forms of mimicry may not always be </span><strong>straightforward</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What do many models suggest about the link between </span><strong>perception and behavior</strong><span> in linguistic copying?</span>”
“<span>They suggest a </span><strong>tight link</strong><span> between perception and behavior, where a speaker’s words or syntactic structures are </span><strong>"”primed””</strong><span> by those of their conversation partner.</span>”
“<span>How is </span><strong>alignment</strong><span> viewed in many models?</span>”
“<span>Alignment is viewed as a largely </span><strong>automatic</strong><span> (almost unconscious) process.</span>”
“<span>What is a naive expectation of the </span><strong>alignment model</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The naive expectation is that </span><strong>adaptation</strong><span> is </span><strong>symmetrical</strong><span>.</span>”
<div>When might adaptation be <strong>asymmetrical</strong>?</div>
<br></br>
<div>Adaptation might be asymmetrical in interactions between:</div>
<ul><li>People with different <strong>hierarchical status</strong></li><li><strong>Parents and children</strong></li><li><strong>Native and non-native</strong> speakers</li></ul>
“<span>What is a question regarding interactions between speakers of different </span><strong>language varieties</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>What about interactions between speakers of different </span><strong>language varieties</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>What type of language is </span><strong>Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>Dutch is a </span><strong>West Germanic language</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Where is Dutch the native language?</span>”
“<span>It is the native language of most of the population of the </span><strong>Netherlands</strong><span> and about sixty percent of the population of </span><strong>Belgium</strong><span> (Flemish part) and </span><strong>former colonies</strong><span>.</span>”
<div>How many people speak Dutch according to Wikipedia?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Dutch is spoken by about </span><strong>22 million people</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What are the regional variations of Dutch?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The regional variations considered here are <strong>Netherlandic Dutch (ND)</strong> and <strong>Belgian Dutch (BD)</strong> (also known as <strong>Flemish</strong>).</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>What is the general expectation about adaptation between </span><strong>Flemish and Dutch</strong><span> speakers?</span>”
“<span>Flemish speakers adapt more to </span><strong>Dutch</strong><span>, than the other way around.</span>”
“<span>Why is it expected that </span><strong>Flemish</strong><span> adapt more to </span><strong>Dutch</strong><span>?</span>”
“<ul><li><span>Dutch is a </span><strong>pluricentric language</strong><span>, but speakers consider the variant in </span><strong>Haarlem</strong><span> as the ““best”” one.</span></li><li><span><strong>Diachronically</strong>, Flemish have adapted more to Dutch than the other way around.<br></br></span></li><li><span>Flemish have fewer problems <strong>understanding Dutch</strong>.<br></br></span></li><li><span><strong>Regional dialects</strong> are stronger in Belgium, which may cause Flemish speakers to be more <strong>sensitive to language variation</strong>.<br></br></span></li></ul>”
<div>What game variant is used to <strong>elicit spontaneous interactions</strong>?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>A variant of the </span><strong>battle ship game</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>How is the game played in the </span><strong>interactive paradigm</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>The game is played via </span><strong>Skype connection</strong><span> and participants </span><strong>cannot see each other</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>Who participates in each game session of battlship?</span>”
“<span>Each game is played between a </span><strong>Flemish</strong><span> and a </span><strong>Dutch</strong><span> participant.</span>”
<div>What roles do participants take during the game battlship?</div>
“<span>Participants take turns being the </span><strong>leader</strong><span> or </span><strong>follower</strong><span>.</span>”
<div>What was the main effect of <strong>Nationality</strong> in the results of thee research with battleship between flemish and dutch persons.</div>
“<span>lemish speakers adapted more to Dutch ones (</span><strong>33% vs 10%</strong><span>).</span>”
<div>What were the significant effects found in the experiment of battleships?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Significant effects of </span><strong>Whostarts</strong><span> (players who follow adapt more) and </span><strong>Round</strong><span> (more adaptation in round 2).</span>”
“<span>What was the significant 2-way interaction found in the expeerimeent with battleships?</span>”
“T<span>he interaction between </span><strong>Nationality and Whostarts</strong><span> showed that when a </span><strong>Dutch person starts the game</strong><span>, there is more adaptation by Flemish speakers than when a Flemish person starts.</span>”
“<span>How was the adaptation process described between dutch and flemish players of battleships?</span>”
“<span>It was described as a very </span><strong>spontaneous, unconscious</strong><span> process.</span>”
“<span>Did participants recognize the nationality of the other participant when playing battleships?</span>”
“<span>Yes, Flemish and Dutch speakers immediately recognized that the other participant was of a </span><strong>different nationality</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What was unique about the icons chosen in </span><strong>Experiment 2(adaption between flemish and dutch)</strong>”
“<span>Half of the icons were chosen because they could potentially lead to different </span><strong>pronunciations</strong><span>.</span>”
“<span>What was the main effect of </span><strong>Nationality</strong><span> in the results in thee experiment of phonological adaption between dutch and flemish peersons?</span>”
“<ul><li><span>Flemish speakers adapted more to Dutch ones (</span><strong>10% vs 1%</strong><span>).</span><br></br></li><li><span>The degree of phonological adaptation was <strong>much smaller</strong> than lexical adaptation.<br></br></span></li><li><span>here was <strong>no boosting effect</strong>; the degree of lexical adaptation did not correlate with the degree of phonological adaptation.<br></br></span></li></ul>”
“<span>What is a limitation of the study on linguistic copying behaviour?</span>”
“<span>The study only looked at speakers of the </span><strong>Brabantian</strong><span> variant of dutch, so the situation could be different for </span><strong>Limburgian</strong><span> variants spoken on either side of the border.</span>”
“<span>What question remains about </span><strong>adaptation</strong><span> in other pluricentric communities?</span>”
“<span>What about adaptation in other </span><strong>pluricentric</strong><span> communities such as </span><strong>German, French, Italian, English, and Portuguese</strong><span>?</span>”
What are conventionalised gestures?
“<br></br><img></img>”
“<span>What is an important distinction in gesture types?</span>”
“<span>Gestures without an </span><strong>intrinsic meaning</strong><span> (e.g., beat gestures) and gestures that visually </span><strong>depict something</strong><span> (iconic vs metaphoric use).</span>”
“<span>What are </span><strong>gestures without intrinsic meaning</strong><span> determined by?</span>”
“<span>They are determined by the </span><strong>rhythm of speech</strong><span>.</span>”
<div>What are the two types of gestures that visually depict something?</div>
<br></br>
“<span> </span><strong>Iconic</strong><span> gestures (concrete depiction) and </span><strong>metaphoric</strong><span> gestures (abstract depiction).</span>”
<div>What is <strong>alignment</strong> in terms of behaviour?</div>
<br></br>
“<span>Alignment is when people adapt their </span><strong>behaviour</strong><span> to that of the people with whom they are interacting.</span>”
“<span>What nonverbal features do people </span><strong>mimic</strong><span>?</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>People mimic <strong>posture</strong> and <strong>bodily gestures</strong> (both conventionalized and spontaneous ones).</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div><div></div></div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div></div></div></div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>Who provided evidence for </span><strong>gestural mimicry</strong><span>?</span>”
“<strong>Kimbara</strong><span> (2006, 2008) and </span><strong>Parrill and Kimbara</strong><span> (2006).</span>”
“<span>What is the </span><strong>director-matcher</strong><span> paradigm?</span>”
“<br></br><img></img>”
“<span>What did </span><strong>Mol et al.</strong><span> (2009, 2011, 2012) study?</span>”
“<span>They provided insights into how speakers </span><strong>adapt their gestures</strong><span> to specific addressees.</span>”
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>what is meant with an adressee?<div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
“<span>An </span><strong>addressee</strong><span> is the person or entity to whom speech or communication is directed. In other words, it is the </span><strong>listener</strong><span> or </span><strong>receiver</strong><span> of the message being conveyed by the speaker.</span>”
“<span>What factors must be considered to understand </span><strong>adaptive processes</strong><span> in gestural behaviour?</span>”
“<ul><li>The kind of <strong>addressee</strong></li><li>The <strong>addressee’s perspective</strong></li><li>The <strong>meaning</strong> of the gesture</li></ul><br></br>”
“<span>What was the paradigm used to study the </span><strong>effect of the kind of addressee</strong><span>?</span>”
“<br></br><br></br><img></img>”
“<span>What was the result of the experiment on the effect of the kind of </span><strong>addressee</strong><span>?</span>”
“<img></img>”
“<span>What was the result of the experiment on the effect of the meaning of gestures?</span>”
“<br></br><br></br><img></img>”
In an interactive setting, speakers tend to adapt their gestural behaviour,<br></br>depending on
“<img></img>”
“<span>What is a </span><strong>metaphor</strong><span>?</span>”
“<span>It is a </span><strong>figure of speech</strong><span>, an </span><strong>implied comparison</strong><span>.</span><strong><br></br><br></br>Cambridge Dictionary:</strong><span>An </span><strong>expression</strong><span> that describes a person or object by referring to something that is considered to have </span><strong>similar characteristics</strong><span> to that person or object.<br></br><br></br></span><strong>Oxford Dictionary:</strong><span>A </span><strong>word or phrase</strong><span> used to describe somebody/something else, in a way that is different from its </span><strong>normal use</strong><span>, to show that the two things have the same qualities and to make the description more </span><strong>powerful</strong><span>.</span><span><br></br></span>”
What is a consequence of conceptual metaphors?
“<br></br><img></img>”
What is meant with target domain and source domain in metaphors?
“<br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br><br></br>summarized: <b>target domain</b> = <i>abstract concept</i>, easified with a more <i>concrete concept </i>(<b>source domain</b>)”
“<br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br>What are the the target domain and source domain her?”
Target = climate change<br></br>Source = icecream melts
What is something you can say about variability in metaphors?
“<br></br><br></br><img></img>”
Hoe gebruiken we ruimtelijke metaforen om tijd aan teegeven?
“<ul><li><div><strong>In westerse culturen is de uitdrukking van de toekomst als volgt</strong>:</div><ul><li><strong>Op de verticale as</strong>: De toekomst wordt aan de rechterkant geplaatst.</li><li><strong>Op de sagittale as</strong>: De toekomst wordt vooraan geplaatst.</li></ul></li><li><div><strong>Deze tijd-ruimte link is ook terug te vinden in de taal</strong>:</div><ul><li>In het Engels: de toekomst ligt voor ons (““ahead””), en we kijken terug (““back””).</li><li>In het Nederlands: je kijkt vooruit (““vooruit””), en je blikt terug (““terug””).</li></ul></li></ul><div>Dit betekent dat zowel in de Engelse als in de Nederlandse taal tijd vaak wordt beschreven in termen van beweging door de ruimte, waarbij de toekomst voor ons ligt en het verleden achter ons.</div>”
What can be sais about enbodiment and the time-space connection?
“<br></br><br></br><img></img>”
How is the connection between time and space in mandarin and chinese languages?
“<br></br><img></img><br></br>which makes sense, because they read from above to belowd.<br></br>”
How is the vertical gesturing by speakers of Mandarin affected by?
“<img></img>”
What was the research design when researching gesturing space in Mandarin?
“<br></br><img></img><br></br><br></br>a.k.a. people had to describe words… There were sentences with spatial connotations and without. Researched was if people used gestures.”
What were the results of the research about gesturing space in Mandarin?
“<br></br><img></img>”
What did Stocker study in 2016, regarding eye gaze?
“<br></br><br></br><img></img>”
What were the results of the study of Stocker in 2016?
“<br></br><br></br><img></img>”
“<span>What was the research design when researching Mandarin speakers from Rizhao Polytechnic’s eye movements, and what were the conclusions?</span>”
“<ul><li><strong>Participants:</strong> 31 native Mandarin speakers from Rizhao Polytechnic.</li><li><strong>Procedure:</strong><ul><li>Participants listened to 54 pairs of sentences, 18 of which contained temporal relations (past or future).</li><li>They sat in front of a computer screen, looking at an empty gray screen while listening to the sentences.</li><li>Occasionally, they answered true/false questions about the sentences.</li><li>Eye movements were recorded using a portable eye-tracker (eye-tribe).</li></ul></li><li><strong>Stimuli:</strong> Sentences included vertical spatial metaphors (e.g., ““last month,”” ““next month””), sagittal spatial metaphors (e.g., ““before,”” ““after””), and neutral temporal references (e.g., ““yesterday,”” ““tomorrow””).</li></ul><div><strong>Conclusions:</strong></div><ul><li>Eye movements revealed differences in how participants conceptualized past and future.</li><li>Significant differences were found between Swiss German and Chinese participants.</li><li>Participants could not guess the true purpose of the study.</li><li>Linguistic material, especially vertical time words, had a noticeable early effect on eye movements.</li></ul>”
“<span>How did the focus on past and future values differ among Moroccans, Chinese, and Spaniards?</span>”
<div>Moroccans focused more on the past, Spaniards on the future, and Chinese participants showed a neutral or balanced focus.</div>
<br></br>
“<span>What did the object positioning task reveal about cultural differences?</span>”
<div>Moroccans predominantly placed the past in front, while Spaniards and some Chinese groups placed the future in front.</div>
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