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Animal Physiology > TEST 1 REVIEW > Flashcards

TEST 1 REVIEW Flashcards

1
Q

afferent

A

from receptor to brain

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2
Q

efferent

A

from brain to organ

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3
Q

Peripheral nervous system maintains homeostasis through

A

dual innervation, antagonistic action between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems

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4
Q

purkinje neuron

A

major output neuron of the cerebellum

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5
Q

Astrocytes

A

glial cells – involved in blood brain barrier maintenance by enveloping endothelial capillaries, development of new circuits, repair, release gliotransmitters, and tripartite system of connection

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6
Q

where are action potentials generated

A

axon hillock

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7
Q

the four functional neural zones

A

reception, integration, conduction, transmission

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8
Q

location of signal reception

A

dendrites and cell body

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9
Q

location of signal integration

A

axon hillock

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10
Q

location of signal conduction

A

AP travelling down axon

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11
Q

location of signal transmission

A

release of NT at axon terminals

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12
Q

differences between axons and dendrites

A

Axons do not branch dendrites taper as well as branch, dendrites have spines and axons are smooth

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13
Q

depolarization

A

membrane becomes less negative

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14
Q

repolarization

A

membrane returns to resting value

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15
Q

hyperpolarization

A

membrane becomes more negative

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16
Q

equilibrium potential

A

potential at which an ion is at equilibrium across the membrane i.e. there is no net movement of that ion across the membrane, calculated using the Nernst equation

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17
Q

goldman equation

A

weighted average of equilibrium potentials for all ions with permeability to that cell

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18
Q

electrotonic current spread

A

charge spreads through cytoplasm causing changes in adjacent membrane potential, no contribution from VG channels, primarily ligand gated

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19
Q

Characteristics of APs

A

Triggered by net graded potential reaching threshold potential at axon hillock, Caused by opening and closing of ion gated channels, Do not degrade over time, travel long distances, All or none size, duration, and shape which are the same in a given neuron but not necessarily among a population of neurons, Occur IN axons, Self propagating, Electrotonic spread, Have a regenerative cycle

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20
Q

Channel activity in an AP

A

o VG Na channel opens in depolarization
o VG K channels open more slowly in repolarization
o VG Na channels close and K channels close more slowly in hyperpolarization

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21
Q

Hodgkin cycle

A

a positive feedback loop that drives depolarization – opening of Na channels causes influx of Na causing further depolarization and more Na channels to open

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22
Q

VG Na channels at rest

A

activation gate closed

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23
Q

VG Na channels during depolarization

A

activation gate open

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24
Q

VG Na channels during repolarization

A

inactivation gate closed, activation gate open

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25
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

APs leap from node to node, does not degrade like regular electrotonic current spread because APs are regenerated at nodes – the alternating of electrotonic conduction with new APs along the axon

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26
Q

cause of absolute refractory period

A

closure of inactivation gate of Na channels during hyperpolarization

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27
Q

Factors that lower intracellular Ca

A

o Binding with intracellular buffers

o Ca ATPases

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28
Q

[Ca] at high frequency APs

A

Ca influx is greater than removal, ↑ [Ca], many synaptic vesicles release their contents, high [neurotransmitter] in synapse

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29
Q

Electrochemical driving force

A

|Vm – Eion|

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30
Q

Cholinergic transmission

A

acetyl CoA (from mitochondria) + choline&raquo_space;choline acetyl transferase&raquo_space; Ach, released by exocytosis, broken down by AchE in synapse, choline re-entered by presynaptic cell while acetate diffuses out of the synapse

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31
Q

Electrical synapse

A

gap junction - allows movement of small molecules/ions without having to cross membrane

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32
Q

gap junction

A

Made with 1 hemmichannel/cell, connexon formed of 6 connexins

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33
Q

Chemical synapse

A

chemical messenger crosses synaptic cleft – increases diversity of signals that can be passed through the synaptic cleft

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34
Q

PNS chemical synapses

A

axon terminals, varicosities

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35
Q

CNS chemical synapses

A

En passant synapse, spine synapse

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36
Q

Characteristics of NTs

A

o Synthesized in neurons
o Released at presynaptic cell following depolarization
o Bind to postsynaptic receptor and cause a detectable effect
o Mechanism of inactivation

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37
Q

Types of NTs

A 
o	Amino acids
o	Neuropeptides
o	Biogenic amines
o	Acetylcholine
o	Miscellaneous (gases, purines)
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38
Q

Inhibitory NTs

A

cause hyperpolarization of postsynaptic cells (IPSP), make cell less likely to generate AP

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39
Q

Excitatory NTs

A

cause depolarization of membrane (EPSP), make cell more likely to generate AP

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40
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

ligand gated ion channels, fast e.g. nicotinic Ach receptors

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41
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A

changes shape, formation of second messenger, alters opening of ion channel, slow, leads to long term changes via second messengers

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42
Q

Nicotinic receptor

A

always excitatory, ionotropic, 5 subunits, Na, Ca in

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43
Q

Muscarinic receptor

A

metabotropic, g-protein coupled, 7TM subunits, activates cAMP (PKA)

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44
Q

Biogenic amines

A

serotonin and the catecholamines

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45
Q

catecholamines

A

tyrosine derived - NE, E, dopamine

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46
Q

Synaptic facilitation

A

repeated AP results in increased Ca released in axon terminal, increased NT released

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47
Q

Synaptic depression

A

repeated APs decrease NT release, progressive depletion of readily releasable pool

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48
Q

Post-tetanic potentiation

A

train of high frequency APs leads to increased NT release, believed to involve Ca dependent increase in NT containing vesicles in axon terminal which might lead to recruitment of vesicles from reserve pool

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49
Q

Alzheimer’s treatment

A

AchE inhibitors; found reduced level of Ach in the brain of alzheimers patients, wanted to increase Ach in brain to help that, but problem is Ach deficiency is symptom, problem is the plaques that cause NT reduction

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50
Q

Depression treatment

A

Prozac – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, treats symptom not cause

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51
Q

Generator potential

A

sensory receptor IS the primary afferent neuron

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52
Q

Receptor potential

A

sensory receptor is separate from the primary afferent neuron – requires an NT from receptor to afferent neuron creating a graded potential that triggers an AP

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53
Q

Telereceptors

A

detect distant stimuli

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54
Q

Exteroreceptors

A

detect stimuli on outside of body

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55
Q

Interoreceptors

A

stimuli inside the body

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56
Q

Stimulus modality

A

what type of energy the stimulus responds to

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57
Q

Adequate stimulus

A

preferred stimulus modality

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58
Q

ampullae of lorenzini

A

detect pressure, temperature, electrical fields at end of canal at the base of which lies gel that is in constant contact with water – receptor potentials

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59
Q

Theory of labeled lines

A

discrete pathway from the sensory cell to the integrating centre

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60
Q

Lateral inhibition

A

signals from neurons at the centre of a receptive field inhibit neurons on the periphery – to determine locations of stimuli

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61
Q

Dynamic range

A

range of stimulus intensities over which a receptor can increase its response

62
Q

threshold of detection

A

response 50% of the time in one receptor

63
Q

large dynamic range

A

large change in stimulus causes a small change in firing frequency – poor sensory discrimination

64
Q

narrow dynamic range

A

small change in stimulus causes a large change in AP frequency – good sensory discrimination

65
Q

range fractionation

A

groups of receptors work together to increase dynamic range without decreasing sensory discrimination

66
Q

Weber-fechner law

A

resolution of perception diminishes for stimuli of greater magnitude

67
Q

Phasic receptors

A

produce APs at the beginning and/or end of the stimulus, encode change in stimulus but not stimulus duration

68
Q

Tonic receptors

A

produce APs as long as the stimulus continues, encode stimulus duration

69
Q

olfactory receptor cells

A

are ciliated bipolar neurons with odorant receptor proteins in cilia

70
Q

odorant receptor protein

A

Each olfactory neuron expresses one, but receptors can recognize more than one odorant

71
Q

odorant response

A

Odorant binds receptor causing conformational change, Golf activates adenylate cyclase increasing cAMP, which opens cAMP gated ion channels causing Ca and Na to enter cell – generator potential – Ca activates Cl (out) channels increasing depolarization, generator potential opens VG Na channels – AP

72
Q

Vomeronasal organ

A

detects pheromones – structurally and molecularly distinct from the olfactory epithelium, connected to oral or nasal cavity, GPCR activates PLC system which opens ion channels causing depolarization

73
Q

Invertebrate olfactory system

A

located in many parts of the body but mainly on antennae in arthropods

74
Q

Sensilla

A

hair like projections of cuticle, contain odorant bipolar neurons which have GPCRs that cause cAMP formation, opening of ion channels and depolarization

75
Q

Taste receptor cells

A

epithelial cells release NTs and express more than one kind of receptor protein, a single primary afferent taste neuron may synapse with more than one receptor cell with diverse signal transduction mechanisms

76
Q

salty taste transduction mechanism

A

Na ions depolarize receptor cell membrane through open ion channels

77
Q

sour taste transduction mechanism

A

protons enter through channel and block K channel leading to depolarization

78
Q

sweet, bitter, umami taste transduction mechanisms

A

activation of PLC, PIP, IP3, causing release of Ca into cytoplasm from ER that opens Na channels causing depolarization and NT release

79
Q

Invertebrate taste

A

located on sensilla inside and outside mouth, on legs, and wing margin, bipolar sensory neurons that express only one receptor protein (each), more similar to vertebrate olfactory neurons

80
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

linked to ECM and alter channel permeability

81
Q

ENaC

A

epithelial sodium channels

82
Q

TRP channels

A

transient receptor potential channels (allow K and Ca to cross)

83
Q

Vertebrate tactile receptors

A

widely dispersed in skin, isolated, free nerve endings maybe wrapped in accessory structure

84
Q

Pacinian corpuscle

A

free nerve ending with 60-70 layers of membranes with gel in between, pressure and vibration, transient depolarization at onset and offset of stimulus

85
Q

Merkel’s disk

A

free nerve endings associated with an enlarged epidermal cell with small receptive fields, slowly adapting tonic receptors – most sensitive to indentation

86
Q

Root hair plexus

A

free nerve endings wrapped around basis of hair follicles, rapidly adapting phasic receptors, sensitive to changes in movement

87
Q

Trichoid receptor

A

hairlike projection of cuticle, bipolar sensory neuron, TRP channel, also used in olfaction and gustation

88
Q

Campaniform receptor

A

dome shaped bulge od cuticle, sense deformation of cuticle as it moves, bipolar sensory neuron, used in proprioception

89
Q

Muscle spindles

A

monitor muscle length (skeletal)

90
Q

Golgi tendon organs

A

monitor muscle tension

91
Q

Joint capsule receptors

A

located in capsules that enclose joints, monitor pressure, tension, and movement

92
Q

Statocysts

A

organ of equilibrium in aquatic invertebrates, hollow fluid filled cavities lined with mechanosensory neurons, Contain statoliths

93
Q

statoliths

A

dense particles of calcium carbonate, their movement stimulates mechanoreceptors

94
Q

Vertebrate hair cells

A

modified epithelial cells NOT neurons with cilia on apical surface all connected by tip links

95
Q

kinocilium

A

one true cilium on each hair cell

96
Q

stereocilia

A

microvilli made of actin bundles 20-300 on each, pivot along base in response to movement, oriented according to size

97
Q

stereocilia moving away from kinocilium

A

blocks K channel opening and NT release so there is no AP generation in primary afferent neuron

98
Q

stereocilia moving towards kinocilium

A

opens K channels and causes NT release for AP generation in PAN

99
Q

endolymph

A

fluid bathing apical side that is high in K, concentration is actively maintained in vestibular apparatus and cochlea, high K low Na

100
Q

perilymph

A

fluid bathing basal side, similar to CSF, high Na low K, fills cochlear ducts

101
Q

Vestibular apparatus

A

3 semicircular canals with ampulla at one end and 2 sac like swellings of utricle and saccule, lagena is extension of saccule that in birds and mammals becomes cochlear duct or cochlea

102
Q

macula

A

in utricle and saccule, mineralized otoliths in gelatinous matrix that have hair cell cilia embedded, detect linear acceleration and tilting of head when inertial force causes hair bundle movement

103
Q

crista

A

in ampullae of semicircular canals – has gelatinous matrix in cupula that DOES NOT have otoliths but does have stereocilia embedded, detect angular acceleration by inertial force of fluid movement causing hair bundle movement - pressure of endolymph in opposite direction of movement

104
Q

Push-pull system

A

one canal is stimulated, partner on other side is inhibited, direction of movement determined by comparing contralateral canals

105
Q

cochlea

A

coiled in mammals, contains organ of corti

106
Q

organ of corti

A

has hair cells on basilar membrane, inner rows of sensory receptors and stereocilia embedded in tectorial membrane

107
Q

Sound transduction

A

vibrations to oval window, pressure waves in perilymph of vestibular duct, basilar membrane vibrates, stereocilia bend, opens TRP channels, K in for depolarization, hair cells release glutamate which excites afferent neuron, round window dissipates energy

108
Q

sound frequency detection

A

basilar membrane is stiff and narrow at proximal end and flexible and wide at distal end, high frequency at proximal end

109
Q

sound location detection

A

brain uses time lags and differences in intensity to detect location, head rotation localizes sound

110
Q

ciliary photoreceptor cells

A

have a single highly folded cilium that forms disks containing photopigments

111
Q

rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells

A

have microvillar projections that contain photopigments – outfoldings of apical surface

112
Q

Vertebrate photoreceptors

A

ciliary – rods (dim) and cones (bright), have inner segment which forms synapses with other cells and outer segment with photopigments

113
Q

Chromophore

A

pigment derived from vitamin A (e.g. retinal) that has C=C bonds, when light is absorbed bond changes cis to trans

114
Q

Photoreceptor protein

A

e.g. opsin GPCR – structure determines photopigment sensitivity

115
Q

Rhabdomeric phototransduction

A

o Chromophore absorbs energy from photon and changes conformation (isomerizes cis-trans)
o Activated chromophore dissociates from opsin – bleaching
o Opsin activates g-protein which activates PLC, converting PIP to DAG and IP3, DAG activates a TRP channel, Ca and Na enter and depolarize cell

116
Q

ciliary phototransduction

A

o Chromophore absorbs energy from photon and changes conformation (isomerizes cis-trans)
o Activated chromophore dissociates from opsin – bleaching
o Opsin activates Gi called transducin, which activates PDE which converts cGMP to GMP, decreased [cGMP] closes Na channel, decreasing [Na] hyperpolarizes cell

117
Q

flat sheet eyes

A

some sense of light direction/intensity, larval eyes or accessory adult eyes, no image formation

118
Q

cup shaped eyes

A

retinal sheet is folded into narrow aperture that allows discrimination of light direction and intensity, light/dark

119
Q

camera eyes

A

most vertebrates, lens in aperture improves clarity and intensity by refracting light and focusing it on one point on retina

120
Q

compound eyes

A

found in annelids, molluscs, arthropods – convex retina, detection of movement and wide field of view

121
Q

composition of compound eyes

A

Composed of ommatidia – the photoreceptor – forms images by each ommatidia operating independently and forming part of an image that the neurons interconnect, OR, ommatidia work together to form image

122
Q

limitations of compound eyes

A

size limited by wave properties of light, number of ommatidia limited by size - resolving power can be increased by reducing size or increasing number of ommatidia

123
Q

3 layers of vertebrate vesicular eye

A

sclera, uvea, retina

124
Q

sclera

A

white of eye, support and protection, has cornea – anterior modification

125
Q

uvea

A

choroid, ciliary body, iris – for nutrition gas exchange and reducing reflection, tapetum in nocturnal animals as reflective modification

126
Q

retina

A

lines inside of choroid, light sensitive

127
Q

aqueous humor

A

fluid in anterior chamber

128
Q

iris

A

pigmented smooth muscle regulating size of pupil

129
Q

ciliary body

A

muscles that change lens shape

130
Q

lens

A

behind iris, focus images on retina

131
Q

vitreous humor

A

gelatinous mass in posterior chamber

132
Q

layers of cells in vertebrate vesicular eye

A

ganglion cells, amacrine, bipolar, horizontal, rods/cones – axons of ganlions exit retina at optic disk

133
Q

fovea

A

region in centre of retina where overlying bipolar and ganglion cells are pushed away leaving only cones, provides sharpest image

134
Q

rods

A

use principle of convergence – many rods converge on one bipolar cell, many bipolar cells on one ganglion cell – gives large receptive field and fuzzy image

135
Q

cones

A

no convergence, one cone/bipolar cell/ganglion cell, smaller receptive field, high resolution image, less convergence = greater acuity

136
Q

Center-surround organization of signal processing

A

enhances perception of borders and contrast, lateral inhibition from horizontal cells in surround

137
Q

On center ganglion cells

A

light in centre of receptive field causes hyperpolarization of photoreceptor and reduced release of I glutamate, bipolar cells depolarize, increase NT release, and ganglion fire

138
Q

off centre ganglion cells

A

light in centre of receptive field, photoreceptor hyperpolarization, reduced e glutamate, bipolar cell hyperpolarization, decreased NT release, ganglion inhibition

139
Q

visual signal processing

A

optic nerves > optic chiasm > optic tract > lateral geniculate nucleus > visual cortex

140
Q

Alpha 1 adrenergic receptor sensitivity

A

more sensitive to NE than E

141
Q

alpha 1 adrenergic receptor cascade

A

NE binds GPCR and activates PLC > PIP > DAG + IP3 > PKC > activates Ca channel

142
Q

alpha 1 adrenergic receptor action

A

Vasoconstriction to nonessential tissues

143
Q

alpha 2 adrenergic receptor sensitivity

A

NE>E

144
Q

alpha 2 adrenergic receptor cascade

A

NE binds GPCR, Gi subunit inactivates AC, decreased cAMP levels, inactivates PKA, dephosphorylates Ca channels

145
Q

alpha 2 adrenergic receptor action

A

Negative feedback loop inhibiting NE release

146
Q

beta 1 adrenergic receptor sensitivity

A

NE = E

147
Q

beta 1 adrenergic receptor cascade

A

NE/E binds, GPCR activates AC, increased cAMP activates PKA, activates Ca channels

148
Q

beta 1 adrenergic receptor action

A

Greater contractive force in heart

149
Q

beta 2 adrenergic receptor sensitivity

A

E>NE

150
Q

beta 2 adrenergic receptor cascade

A

E binds, GPCR activates AC, increased cAMP activates PKA, inactivates MLCK

151
Q

beta 2 adrenergic receptor action

A

PKA hyperpolarizes cell making it more prone to contraction – vasodilation

Animal Physiology (1 decks)

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