Test 1 (Chapters 1-5)

Question 1

What is a drug?

Answer 1

Any chemical entity or mixture of entities, other than those required for the maintenance of normal health (like food), the administration of which alters biological function and possibly structure.

Question 2

Drug use vs drug abuse

Answer 2

Depends on relationship a person has with that drug as well as dose, frequency of use, and occurrence of adverse outcomes.

Question 3

Factors that shape our attitudes about drugs.

Answer 3

Drugs effect, time place and reason for taking the drug, demographic characteristics of the user.

Question 4

Drug addiction

Answer 4

A condition of compulsive drug seeking and drug use despite the harmful consequences associated with drug use, and it includes long-term changes to brain structure and function.

Question 5

Substance use disorder

Answer 5

The diagnostic label for drug addiction currently preferred in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (also known as the DSM-5)—is diagnosed based on the presence of key indicators of problematic drug use. (ex withdrawal symptoms, drug causing problems in relationship, spending time getting and using drug)

Question 6

Global Drug Use

Answer 6

The prevalence of drug use is not simply related to a country’s drug policies.

Question 7

Canadian Student Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey (CSTADS, formerly the Youth Smoking Survey)

Answer 7

Drug use is lowest for ages 15–19, is substantially higher for ages 20–24 (highest), and begins to decrease for ages 25+. Alcohol is most used. Measured biannually.

Question 8

Gender differences in drug usage

Answer 8

Men are more likely to use illicit drugs than are women. Men more likely to be destructive and engage in devious behaviours.

Question 9

Education

Answer 9

The use of specific drugs often covaries with the amount of formal education one has.

Question 10

Why Do People Use Drugs?

Answer 10

To Feel Pleasure and to Avoid Feeling Pain, To Change the State of Consciousness, To Enhance Spiritual, Religious, or Mystical Experiences, To Facilitate and Enhance Social Interactions, To Alter and Improve the Body

Question 11

With respect to Judeo-Christian religions (i.e., Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), which statement best summarizes the evolution of the relationship between alcohol and these religious practices?

Answer 11

Alcohol played a role in the development of all three religions, but over the years, over-consumption, and in some denominations, any consumption at all, has become prohibited.

Question 12

Risk factors

Answer 12

The personal characteristics of, or environmental influences on, an individual that increase the likelihood of drug use.

Question 13

Protective/resiliency factors

Answer 13

decrease the likelihood of drug use

Question 14

Individual Problems with Acute Use

Answer 14

-Drug administration can be problematic
-Drug impurities

Question 15

Drug Misuse

Answer 15

When an individual takes medicine prescribed to them in a manner inconsistent with the prescription.

Question 16

Individual Problems with Chronic Use

Answer 16

-Chronic health problems including psychiatric problems
-Problems with personal relationships, occupation, and financial status.
-Legal problems

Question 17

Societal Problems Associated with Drug Use

Answer 17

-In Canada, substance use is estimated to cost almost $40 billion annually, when considering health care expenses, lost productivity, and criminal justice costs.
-About 70 per cent of these costs are due to alcohol and tobacco.
-Drug-related violence, car accidents, or fetal harm.
The increased crime and incarceration
-Illicit drug manufacturing and use can cause environmental damage through toxic waste or infected needles.

Question 18

Illegal vs Illicit drugs

Answer 18

Illegal drugs are drugs that are restricted by laws. Illicit drugs may be forbidden by laws, rules, or customs, but they are not necessarily illegal. For example, underage drinking may be considered illicit use, even though alcohol is not illegal when used properly.

Question 19

Endogenous substance

Answer 19

Produced within an organism. Examples: endorphins are endogenous forms of morphine, anandamide is our body’s natural form of cannabis.

Question 20

What are Naturally occurring drugs+what percentage of drugs are naturally occuring

Answer 20

About 50 per cent of all medicines on the market are derived from what are called natural products, molecules produced by living organisms for a variety of functions.

Question 21

Drug Naming

Answer 21

After a patent application has been filed for a drug, it is given a generic name (its official name, not capitalized) and a brand or trade name (capitalized), which is used by the company that has filed the patent for the drug.

Question 22

Three sources of drug development

Answer 22

1. The rediscovery of traditional uses of various naturally occurring products
2. The accidental observation of an unexpected drug effect
3. The synthesis of known or novel compounds

Question 23

Health Canada Drug Development and Approval

Answer 23

-Pre-clinical stage (2-10yrs)
-Clinical Stage(6-7yrs)
-Health products and food branch (HPFB) Review
-Post-marketing analysis

Question 24

Direct-to-consumer (DTC) advertising

Answer 24

Pharmaceutical companies market their products directly to patients rather than to health care professionals. Ads often describe a disease and then tell the viewer about the specific drug that can treat it. Canada only allows reminder ads that state the drugs name and disease-oriented and help-seeking ads, which do not advertise a specific brand but describe a condition and encourage consumers to ask their doctors about treatment.

Question 25

Links between exposure and drug consumption

Answer 25

1. People are wired to imitate other people’s behaviours.
2. Viewers observe beautiful, glamorous actors and musicians using alcohol and other drugs and learn to idealize their use.
3. Media references also might teach people to associate drugs and alcohol with certain behaviours, such as champagne on New Year’s Eve.

Question 26

Physical dependence

Answer 26

reflects the changes that occur when the body and brain adapt to the presence of a drug, requiring increasingly higher amounts of the substance to achieve the desired effect (tolerance) and producing drug-specific symptoms when drug use is terminated (withdrawal). Although it often accompanies addiction, physical dependence alone does not constitute addiction.

Question 27

Psychological dependence

Answer 27

is the state of strongly craving a drug. People may be psychologically dependent on a drug if they compulsively use it for its positive effects or to experience relief from stress or emotional discomfort. Psychological dependence can be even more powerful than physical dependence.

Question 28

Addiction

Answer 28

the compulsive use of and preoccupation with a substance such that it causes physical, psychological, and/or social harm to the user.

Question 29

Capture ratio

Answer 29

the percentage of those who try a drug and become habitual users, may be influenced by legality. Highest is nicotine, then heroin, crack cocaine, powder cocaine, alcohol

Question 30

In terms of addiction, which statement most accurately describes how we tend to think about and categorize addiction, as opposed to how physical dependency on a drug actually works?

Answer 30

We are less likely to use the term addiction to describe legal, prescribed drugs that people are reliant upon for medical reasons, such as high blood pressure medication or insulin.

Question 31

What are two of the telltale signs of psychological addiction?

Answer 31

A very strong subjective craving for a drug without a physical need for it and compulsively using it to alleviate or avoid emotional discomfort correct

Question 32

How many Canadians meet the criteria for a substance use disorder at some point in their lives

Answer 32

21.6%

Question 33

_______ is a broad category which refers to and includes the misuse, dependence, and addiction to alcohol, legal, and/or illegal drugs.

Answer 33

Substance use disorders

Question 34

Among Indigenous communities, deaths due to alcohol are _______ times as high as the general population.

Answer 34

two

Question 35

Among the elderly, substance abuse can be particularly difficult to diagnose because

Answer 35

the symptoms can mimic other medical and behavioural conditions

Question 36

spontaneous remission

Answer 36

when people quit drugs on their own without intervention, most people quit this way.

Question 37

Components to addiction

Answer 37

• Preoccupation
• Mood modification
• Tolerance
• Withdrawal
• Conflict
• Relapse

Question 38

Criteria for Substance Use Disorder from DSM-5

Answer 38

Impaired control, social impairment, risky use, pharmacological dependence

Question 39

Addiction Severity Index (ASI)

Answer 39

The ASI is an hour-long, semi-structured interview used to gather information about recent and lifetime problems in six key areas of the user’s life:

• medical status
• employment and support
• alcohol and other drug use
• legal circumstances
• family and social relationships
• psychiatric status

Question 40

CAGE strategy

Answer 40

C: Have you ever felt the need to Cut down on your drinking? A: Have you ever felt Annoyed by someone criticizing your drinking?
G: Have you ever felt Guilty about your drinking?
E: Have you ever felt the need for an Eye opener (drink at the beginning of the day)?

Question 41

When it comes to genetics and addiction, which statement below is the most accurate given the current data?

Answer 41

It appears that genes predispose some people to have a greater risk of becoming addicted to drugs; however, a predisposition does not remove a person’s choice in terms of decisions and behaviours.

Question 42

How does Drug addiction affect/related to Prefrontal cortex

Answer 42

The prefrontal cortex controls many things, including the ability to regulate emotions, suppress urges, and make decisions. With long-term drug use, normal baseline activity of the orbitofrontal cortex shows reduced activity, which may allow impulsive behaviours to override rational decisions. However, activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, an area that regulates cue-related cravings, may be increased.

Question 43

How are Hippocampus and Drug addiction related

Answer 43

The hippocampus, involved in learning and memory, may play a role in addiction. When people begin using drugs, the action (finding and taking drugs) leads to a particular outcome (feeling good). The user learns to associate the positive feelings produced by the drugs with the drug paraphernalia used and with the environment in which it occurs. Over time, these drug cues produce greater responses in the reward pathways than the drugs themselves. This associative learning is mediated, in part, by the hippocampus, which becomes sensitized, and drug seeking becomes compulsive.

Question 44

Drug addiction and The “pleasure centre”: ventral tegmental area (VTA)/nucleus accumbens (NAc)

Answer 44

a functional deficiency of the dopaminergic neurons projecting to “pleasure centres” of the brain—leading to diminished subjective feelings of intoxication or pleasure

Question 45

Drug addiction affects on neurotransmitters (dopamine)

Answer 45

Dopamine is considered to be the primary neurotransmitter of reward and motivation. As far as we know, all drugs of abuse increase dopamine transmission in the NAc, amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. Long-term, chronic exposure to addictive drugs changes these dopaminergic pathways so that they are less responsive to rewarding stimulation.

Question 46

Genetic Factors Underlying Addiction+what % of addiction can be attributed to genes

Answer 46

An individual’s risk of drug addiction increases if they have a parent or sibling who is dependent on drugs or alcohol. But addiction is a complex phenomenon, and there is no single “addiction gene” that controls it. Multiple genes and environmental factors interact to affect a person’s susceptibility to drug addiction. Family studies of addiction suggest that perhaps 40–60 per cent of one’s predisposition to addiction can be attributed to genes.

Question 47

Epigenetic factors of drug addiction

Answer 47

inherited modifications in gene expression caused by environmental factors—also play an important role in the development and maintenance of drug addiction and may be one of the missing links between environmental stimuli and genetic inheritance.

Question 48

Psychological and Interpersonal Factors affect:

Answer 48

affect the likelihood of addiction. Certain personality traits are associated with a higher risk of alcohol or drug addiction. Impulsiveness, rebelliousness, and sensation-seeking can raise one’s risk, as can insecurity, poor self-esteem, and a lack of resilience.

Question 49

Social and Environmental Factors of drug addiction

Answer 49

Social and environmental factors powerfully affect addiction. Drug addiction is often heavily concentrated in the poorest communities. Poverty, racism, and occupational stress are associated with higher rates of addiction, as are communities that have reduced opportunities for employment, education, and cultural outlets.

Question 50

_______ is a neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory, but it also plays an important role in addiction because it makes the hippocampus and frontal lobe hypersensitive to drug cues.

Answer 50

Glutamate

Question 51

Genetic factors for drug abuse seem to be stronger in _______, who also show higher heritability to specific drugs—namely _______.

Answer 51

males; heroin and cocaine

Question 52

In studying attitudes about addiction among addiction educators, researchers found that higher levels of education and experience on the job leads to

Answer 52

less support for the idea that addiction is a disease and that people are genetically predisposed to be addicts from birth. Researchers found that addiction educators, especially those who do research in the field, strongly believe that addiction is a coping mechanism for dealing with stressful life situations or psychiatric issues.

Question 53

1908 Opium Act

Answer 53

• This Act was the first law to allow the government some oversight of the drug marketplace.
  -Opium smoking had been growing in popularity in Canada since the mid-1850s, particularly among Chinese labourers. And although the government benefited from the taxation of opium and the factories that produced it, increasing concern about Chinese labourers taking jobs away from Canadians and ultimately a riot in Vancouver’s Chinatown motivated the implementation of this Act.
  -The Act banned the importation, manufacturing, possession, and sale of opium. These were not (yet) imprisonable offences.

Question 54

1908 Proprietary and Patent Medicine Act

Answer 54

Patent medicines were untested medical cures for everything from coughs to menstrual cramps in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These products commonly included opium and cocaine, often in very high concentrations (although you wouldn’t know it, as prior to this Act there were no requirements to list the ingredients of a product on its label). This Act banned the use of cocaine in patent medicines and required pharmaceutical companies to list opium, morphine, or heroin on the product label if any of these were ingredients.

Question 55

1911 Opium and Drugs Act

Answer 55

This Act banned the importation, manufacturing, possession, and sale of opium, morphine, and cocaine. Imprisonment was introduced as a penalty

Question 56

1916 to mid-1920s Alcohol Prohibition

Answer 56

During World War I, most provinces instituted a ban on alcohol. The year Prohibition came into effect varied from one province to the next, and Prohibition was repealed in each province, typically within 5–10 years. (except Quebec which was short and PEI which was 40 years)

Question 57

1923 Act to Prohibit the Improper Use of Opium and Other Drugs

Answer 57

This update of the 1911 Opium and Drugs Act added cannabis to the list of drugs already banned (opium and cocaine). Emily Murphy, a female judge was central to the criminalization of cannabis through her racist beliefs and writings. In her book The Black Candle (1922), Murphy created propaganda about members of non-White races using cannabis to “bring about the downfall of the White race.” These writings further perpetuated the racist panic that criminalized other drugs

Question 58

1929 Opium and Narcotic Drug Act

Answer 58

This Act increased penalties for drug users and doubled the penalties for drug trafficking from 7 to 14 years. It served as Canada’s main drug policy for more than 30 years.

Question 59

1961 Narcotic Control Act

Answer 59

This Act banned possession, trafficking, importing, and exporting of narcotics, including opiates, cocaine, and cannabis.

Question 60

1969 (through 1972) Commission of Inquiry into the Non-medical Use of Drugs (also known as the Le Dain Commission)

Answer 60

-Canada’s drug laws were resulting in a lifetime of barriers to personal freedom to those convicted, disproportionate to the harms of the drugs
-The Pierre Trudeau government ordered the Le Dain Commission to carefully examine the use of narcotics and associated penalties.
-The Le Dain Commission, whose recommendations recommended gradually decriminalizing all illicit drugs and enacting a fine of $100—and zero jail time—for possession of any illicit drug.
-also recommended removing cannabis from the Narcotic Control Act
-It further argued that scientific evidence should drive drug policy
-None of the commission’s recommendations were implemented.

Question 61

1996 Controlled Drugs and Substances Act

Answer 61

This Act classified illicit drugs and their precursors into eight schedules. Punishments for trafficking opiates, cocaine, and other Schedule I drugs, as well as trafficking cannabis (Schedule II), were increased to a maximum of life imprisonment. Punishments for the possession of small amounts (less than 30 grams) of cannabis were decreased.

Question 62

2001 Marihuana Medical Access Regulations (MMAR)

Answer 62

This law permitted Canadians access to cannabis for medical purposes. Medicinal cannabis is effective in treating specific conditions (multiple sclerosis, a spinal cord injury, or a spinal cord disease; severe pain)

Question 63

2016 Canadian Drugs and Substances Strategy

Answer 63

The Canadian Drugs and Substances Strategy is Canada’s current evidence-based, compassionate, and public health–oriented approach to addressing problematic drug use through drug policy. The strategy is led by the Minister of Health and supported by Health Canada.

Question 64

The four pillars of the Canadian Drugs and Substances Strategy

Answer 64

1. The prevention pillar supports and implements evidence-based initiatives to increase awareness of the risks of substance use
2. The treatment pillar supports evidence-based treatment options
3. The harm reduction pillar supports measures that reduce the negative health, social, and economic effects of substance use
4. The enforcement pillar increases the capacity of law enforcement to target organized crime

Question 65

2018 Cannabis Act

Answer 65

The Cannabis Act came into effect on October 17, 2018, thereby legalizing cannabis in Canada. This was the most significant reversal of drug criminalization in Canada in the last century. possess up to 30 grams of legal cannabis (it is still illegal to possess illegal cannabis!), have 4 cannabis plants.

Question 66

3 main activities of Health Canada’s National Native Alcohol and Drug Abuse Program (NNADAP)

Answer 66

Primarily controlled by Indigenous stakeholders, works to reduce harmful alcohol and other drug use in Indigenous people.
1. Prevention
2. Intervention
3. Aftercare

Question 67

Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA)

Answer 67

In 1996, Prime Minister Jean Chretien’s government signed the (CDSA) into law. The CDSA classifies drugs, their precursors, and devices to produce tablets and capsules into seven drug schedules (numbered I to IX—Schedules VII and VIII were repealed with cannabis legalization)

Question 68

When the World Health Organization (WHO) surveyed over 85,000 subjects in 17 countries about their drug use, what did the data indicate?

Answer 68

Countries with harsher drug policies did not have lower levels of drug use.

Question 69

Harm Reduction Policies

Answer 69

Seek to reduce the health risks associated with drug use, reduce the overcrowding of prisons, and focus on treatment rather than punishment.

Question 70

In 2003, Insite, the first-ever supervised consumption site (SCS) in North America, opened in Vancouver, British Columbia. How many onsite drug overdoses have been reversed since it opened?

Answer 70

Over 5,000

Question 71

Approximately _______ of the prison population in Canada are incarcerated for drug offences, whereas approximately _______ of the prison population in the United States are incarcerated for drug charges.

Answer 71

7%; 50%

Question 72

_______ drug crimes are those committed when drug laws themselves are violated (possession, trafficking, etc.).

Answer 72

Systematic

Question 73

Members of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs rated 20 different drugs on 16 criteria related to the harms that the drug produced in the user and to others. What did their analysis reveal as being the least harmful drug(s)?

Answer 73

Mushrooms and LSD

Question 74

In a survey conducted in 2018, what percentage of Canadians reported that they felt the government should consider the legalization (with regulation) of all drugs for personal use?

Answer 74

75%

Question 75

What is a Teratogen

Answer 75

substance that interferes with normal fetal development and causes congenital disabilities. (aspirin, Accutane, phenytoin)

Question 76

In Canada, a blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) of _______ is considered legally impaired; however, in most provinces, penalties are levied at a BAC of _______ or higher, with zero tolerance for novice drivers and commercial drivers.

Answer 76

0.08; 0.05

Question 77

Neurons

Answer 77

cells that process and transmit information to aid communication throughout the body. They receive and integrate vast amounts of information from both the outside world and the internal environment, and they change constantly to adapt to the body’s demands, sensations, and environmental influences.

Question 78

Sensory neurons

Answer 78

carry information into the brain and spinal cord

Question 79

motor neurons

Answer 79

transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord out to our muscles, nerves, and glands in order to produce a response.

Question 80

Neurogenesis

Answer 80

production of new neurons

Question 81

Neuroglia

Answer 81

account for up to 90 per cent of brain tissue, provide neurons with nutrients and oxygen, clean up debris, protect and insulate neurons, and aid in the transmission of information.

Question 82

soma

Answer 82

cell body, contains the neuron’s machinery, which keeps it functioning. The soma includes the nucleus, containing genes that code for proteins such as neurotransmitters and enzymes, as well as other organelles that keep the cell operational.

Question 83

axon

Answer 83

the long, wire-like component of the neuron. Neurons have only one axon, but the axon can split into numerous branches called collaterals. The axons of most neurons are covered by a white, fatty substance called myelin, which by electrically insulating the axon speeds electrical transmission. There are gaps along the axon that are not covered by myelin called nodes of Ranvier and are the site of electrical signal generation.

Question 84

axon terminal

Answer 84

where electrical signals travel to, contain sacs called vesicles which release neurotransmitters

Question 85

Dendrites

Answer 85

branched outgrowths from the soma. Most of a neuron’s receptors (proteins with specific sizes, shapes, chemicals, and electrical properties) are located on the dendrites.

Question 86

Choose the term which best matches the function associated with the following: _______= transmission; _______= messenger; _______= insulation; _______= receiver.

Answer 86

axon; neurotransmitter; myelin; dendrite

Question 87

resting membrane potential

Answer 87

difference in voltage between the inside and outside of the neuron

Question 88

Action Potentials

Answer 88

Information travels down an axon as a change in membrane voltage, then experiences depolarization

Question 89

Pre and Post Synaptic neuron

Answer 89

The neuron that releases neurotransmitter is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron that the neurotransmitter affects is called the postsynaptic neuron.

Question 90

ionotropic and metabotropic receptors

Answer 90

Ionotropic are receptors that neurotransmitters or drugs can bind to, an ion channel. Conversely, substances can bind to receptors that are separate from ion channels called metabotropic.

Question 91

Neuronal transmission is possible when there is a change in voltage between the inside and the outside of a neuron. This is referred to as

Answer 91

action potential

Question 92

The route of a neurotransmitter during neuronal transmission is in the correct order

Answer 92

Packaged into vesicles → travels down the axon → reaches axon terminal → fuses with presynaptic membrane → released into synapse; binds to receptors at the postsynaptic neuron

Question 93

Nicotine, THC, and morphine are all examples of drugs that have an excitatory effect by

Answer 93

binding to their corresponding receptor sites.

Question 94

What happens when drugs have an Excitatory Effect on Receptor Activation

Answer 94

Increases synthesis of neurotransmitters,
Increases release of neurotransmitters,
Binds to receptor nicotine,
Blocks presynaptic autoreceptors,
Blocks reuptake of neurotransmitters,
Blocks enzymes that break down neurotransmitters
(Ldopa, ectasy, THC, prozac, cocaine)

Question 95

What happens when drugs have inhibitory effects on brain

Answer 95

Decreases synthesis of neurotransmitters,
Decreases storage of neurotransmitters in vesicles,
Decreases release of neurotransmitters,
Blocks the receptor,
Stimulates presynaptic autoreceptors

Question 96

central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Answer 96

The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system (CNS). The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves going to and from the brain and spinal cord

Question 97

The Peripheral Nervous System subcategories

Answer 97

Divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system consists of neurons that carry sensory information into the CNS, as well as nerve fibres that carry motor signals from the CNS to skeletal muscle cells. The autonomic nervous system is a series of neurons that innervate muscles and glands for bodily function.

Question 98

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

Answer 98

The site at which motor neurons from the somatic nervous system innervate (stimulate) skeletal muscles

Question 99

parasympathetic system

Answer 99

ordinary, restful situations. The functions of this system can be remembered by the letter D: Digestion, Defecation, Diuresis, Dozing, and Downtime. Fibres in the parasympathetic system are highly targeted and discrete. This allows the organs innervated by the parasympathetic system to work independently.

Question 100

sympathetic nervous system

Answer 100

the “fight or flight” system. It helps to mobilize our bodies in case of emergency. You can remember the letter E for the functions of the sympathetic system: Emergency, Energy Expending, Exercise, Excitement, and Embarrassment. There is extensive communication among sympathetic fibres, which means that the initial signal can have a widespread effect. This is advantageous because it allows the whole body to mobilize in times of emergency. Pupils dilate (cocaine and stimulants but antidepressants do that as well)

Question 101

blood brain barrier (BBB)

Answer 101

CNS capillaries that prohibit most water-coluable substances from entering the brain, fat soluable molecules can cross. Functional protection for the brain. BBB absent around area postrema, vomiting center

Question 102

The _______ carries basic sensory information into our brains for processing and governs voluntary control of the skeletal muscle system, while the _______ deals with visceral sensations and controls the involuntary action of smooth muscles, heart muscles, and the glandular system.

Answer 102

somatic nervous system; autonomic nervous system

Question 103

LSD mainly affects these two brain structures, both of which play a significant role in how we process sensory information.

Answer 103

Cerebral cortex and thalamus

Question 104

The psychoactive effects which drug users experience consciously are largely a result of how drugs interact with _______ structures; the effects drugs have on our basic life-sustaining functions are a result of how a drug affects the _______; and the pathways of drug addiction are mainly concentrated in the _______.

Answer 104

forebrain; hindbrain; midbrain

Question 105

Our brain has other senses beyond the basic five; for example, this sense helps us track where our body position is relative to other objects and how we are moving through space.

Answer 105

Proprioception

Question 106

Which of these substances cannot pass through the blood brain barrier (BBB)? Nutrients, oxygen, most drugs, lipid-soluble drugs

Answer 106

Most drugs

Question 107

The BBB is absent in this part of the brain, also known as the vomiting center, because the ability of this area to detect toxic substances in the blood serves as an important safety mechanism.

Answer 107

Area postrema

Question 108

GABA

Answer 108

As many as 40 per cent of the synapses in the CNS use GABA as their primary neurotransmitter. GABA decreases the activity of neurons that it binds to, helps to regulate neuronal excitability in the CNS, affects memory, and decreases pain signals. Many drugs bind to the GABAA receptor. Barbiturates, such as phenobarbital, and benzodiazepines, such as Xanax, bind to the receptor.

Question 109

Glutamate

Answer 109

Glutamate is not only an amino acid; it is also the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Over half of all brain synapses release glutamate. Some of the drugs that bind to glutamate receptors include PCP, ketamine, ethanol, and dextromethorphan. When the dissociative anaesthetics PCP and ketamine bind to the receptor, they block the channel and prevent glutamate’s effects

Question 110

Catecholamines

Answer 110

Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine are catecholamines. These neurotransmitters are structurally similar to one another and also have some similarities in their functions. Some drugs that increase the effects of dopamine and norepinephrine include cocaine, amphetamine, drugs that treat ADHD, and some antidepressant drugs.

Question 111

Serotonin

Answer 111

serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found throughout the brain and body. Serotonin got its name from sero (blood) and tonin (tone) due to its effects on vascular tone.

Question 112

Opioids

Answer 112

Drugs such as morphine, codeine, and heroin bind to opioid receptors.

Question 113

Cannabinoids

Answer 113

In the late 1980s, scientists discovered that THC, one of the psychoactive substances in cannabis, bound cannabinoid receptors in the brain. Receptors do not exist in our brain on the off-chance that we might happen upon a plant and smoke it; if there are receptors in our brain for a substance, that means that our bodies produce a natural form of that chemical. Endocannabinoids are produced naturally by the body

Question 114

catecholamines

Answer 114

a chemical that is made by nerve cells and used to send signals to other cells. Catecholamines are important in stress responses.

prescription antipsychotic medication.

cocaine.

amphetamine.

prescription ADHD medication.

Question 115

Which neurotransmitter is likely to work more slowly and less directly on receptors within the brain, instead working to regulate the efficacy of other systems?

Answer 115

Oxytocin

Question 116

_______ is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain and _______ is the main excitatory neurotransmitter.

Answer 116

GABA; glutamate

Question 117

If you were looking for a major neurotransmitter to target that was involved in sleep but not very involved in mood function, which of the following is the best fit?

Answer 117

Acetylcholine

Question 118

If you wanted to create a new drug that has inhibitory relaxant properties but is not as sedating and fast-acting as drugs in the benzodiazepine family, you might target this type of receptor.

Answer 118

GABA

Question 119

Most of the body’s serotonin is located in the

Answer 119

Gut

Question 120

Pharmacokinetics

Answer 120

study of how drugs are handled by the body—how they are absorbed into the bloodstream, distributed throughout the body, transformed into different chemicals, and excreted.

Question 121

Bioavailibility

Answer 121

the degree to which the original drug dose reaches its site of action

Question 122

Absorption

Answer 122

process by which drugs pass from the external world into the bloodstream. Many factors affect how well a drug is absorbed, including the dosage, its route of administration, whether the drug is fat-soluble (dissolves in fats or oils) or water-soluble

Question 123

Distribution

Answer 123

the transport of drugs to their site(s) of action in the body

Question 124

Metabolism

Answer 124

The process by which the body accepts a drug, alters it chemically, and prepares it for excretion is called biotransformation or metabolism. Metabolites are by-products of the biotransformation process: structurally modified forms of the original chemical.

Question 125

Elimination

Answer 125

Drugs leave the body through the kidneys, GI tract, lungs, and skin. Drugs are eliminated either unchanged or after being metabolized into pharmacologically inert, water-soluble by-products.

Question 126

Pharmacodynamics

Answer 126

the study of what a drug does to the body and the mechanisms by which it exerts its effects.

Question 127

Agonist

Answer 127

An agonist is a drug that mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter. This effect can be excitatory or inhibitory. Agonists can work in a variety of ways. They may fit directly into the postsynaptic receptor (like a key in a lock) or they may increase the amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse. A partial agonist is a chemical that binds to and partially activates a receptor.

Question 128

Antagonist

Answer 128

An antagonist does not itself cause a response in the postsynaptic cell. Instead, the antagonist prevents a neurotransmitter from having its effect. The antagonist does this by directly binding and blocking a postsynaptic receptor or by affecting a site other than the postsynaptic receptor, perhaps by blocking synthesis or release. Naloxone is an example of an opioid antagonist.

Question 129

Placebo vs Nocebo

Answer 129

Placebo: pharmacologically inert substance that can elicit a significant therapeutic response
Placebo effect: expectation of a positive outcome
Nocebo effect: expectation of a negative outcome of a placebo treatment can produce harmful effects

Question 130

Efficacy

Answer 130

the maximum effect that can be produced by a drug; the peak of the dose–response curve

Question 131

Therapeutic index

Answer 131

a measure of a drug’s safety given as the ratio of the average lethal dose of a drug divided by the therapeutic dose (ex The LD50 is the dose that is lethal to 50 per cent of the test animal population, while the ED50 is the effective dose—the amount required to produce the desired effect in half the population). Should be big as possible.

Question 132

Margin of safety

Answer 132

an index of a drug’s effectiveness and safety

Question 133

Tolerance

Answer 133

a phenomenon whereby chronic use of a drug can decrease the drug’s effects, can develop rapidly or not, can be reversed.

Question 134

Dose-response curve

Answer 134

a measure of a drug’s effectiveness as a function of the dose administered. Example: small amount of meth does same as very big amount of caffeine.

Question 135

Dose

Answer 135

quantity of drug that is taken into the body (milligrams mg)
Dose isn’t number of pills taken, number of injections

Question 136

Dosage

Answer 136

Dose of drug will have influence effect it has on body. Appropriate dosage depends on nature of the drug, body weight, prior experience with the drug, age, overall health

Question 137

Route of Administration

Answer 137

the method by which a drug is taken into the body, determines how much of a drug reaches its site of action and how quickly the drug takes effect.

Question 138

first-pass effect

Answer 138

the phenomenon by which orally administered drugs are metabolized by liver enzymes before they reach the general circulation, thus significantly reducing their bioavailability

Question 139

Drug depot and plasma proteins

Answer 139

A drug depot is an area of the body that can accumulate and store a drug, but where no significant biological effect of the drug occurs. When a drug is stored in a depot or bound to plasma proteins, the drug is temporarily unable to reach its target site, which slows its onset of action and reduces its effect. In addition, the stored drug does not reach the liver to be metabolized, which can prolong its action.

Question 140

Drugs half-life

Answer 140

A drug’s half-life is the time it takes for the amount of drug in the body to be reduced by 50 per cent. Drugs with a long half-life stay in the body for longer periods of time at close to their full strength

Question 141

_______ refers to the method by which a drug crosses the membranes of the body and ends up in the bloodstream.

Answer 141

Route of administration

Question 142

What is the optimal ROA for a drug that should be delivered slowly and steadily in a patient who is afraid of giving themselves an injection?

Answer 142

Transdermal

Question 143

One of the major disadvantages of oral drug administration is that when certain drugs are metabolized by the liver, they lose much of their potency before reaching the brain. This is called the _______ effect.

Answer 143

first-pass

Question 144

THC that is stored in an area in the body where it has no significant biological effect, such as fat, is said to be stored in a(n)

Answer 144

drug depot

Question 145

Because many drugs bind to plasma proteins, muscles, or fats (where they remain inactive), it is possible to activate the effects of one such drug by

Answer 145

introducing another drug into the system that has a stronger affiliation to bind to the same site

Question 146

What refers to the biochemical process of modifying a drug to facilitate excretion from the body?

Answer 146

Biotransformation

Question 147

This organ contains hundreds of enzymes that synthesize, alter, and deactivate drugs during the metabolism process.

Answer 147

Liver

Question 148

First vs zero order kinetics

Answer 148

First-order kinetics: when drug levels are high, the drug is cleared from the body more rapidly. As drug levels drop, the clearance rate is reduced.
Zero-order kinetics: the drug is cleared from the body at a constant rate, regardless of the drug concentration

Question 149

Speed of drug metabolism may be influenced by genetic variations, such as having abnormally low levels of enzymes which are part of the _______ complex.

Answer 149

cytochrome P450

Question 150

The _______ is the most important organ for elimination of drugs and their metabolites.

Answer 150

kidney

Question 151

Drug action

Answer 151

specific molecular changes produced by a drug when it binds to a receptor and the physiological, psychological, and behavioural changes that occur as a result.

Question 152

Ligand

Answer 152

A ligand is any molecule, humanmade or natural, that binds to a receptor. When a ligand comes upon a receptor into which it fits, it temporarily binds, producing a physical change in the shape of the protein, which initiates a series of intracellular events that ultimately generate an effect.

Question 153

Affinity

Answer 153

how well a drug binds to its target

Question 154

Additive, synergistic and antagonism effects

Answer 154

Additive effects occur when drugs taken together produce an acute effect that is equal to the sum of each drug administered separately. When two drugs are synergistic, the effects of taking them together are greater than the effects of taking either drug alone. In antagonism, one drug (such as naloxone) cancels or blocks the effects of another drug (such as heroin)

Question 155

Metabolic and cellular tolerance

Answer 155

metabolic tolerance-
tolerance that occurs when the body speeds up the metabolism of a drug by increasing the production of certain liver enzymes. cellular tolerance-
tolerance that occurs when cells adapt to the presence of a drug by changing receptor density

Question 156

Homeostasis

Answer 156

the tendency of the body to try to maintain equilibrium, even when faced with external changes

Question 157

Downregulation

Answer 157

the process by which a cell decreases the number of receptors in response to an increased amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse

Question 158

Your doctor prescribes a drug for your migraine episodes, stating, “This drug does not work like OTC pain relievers or even prescription pain medication. Instead it works by constricting your intracranial arteries to reduce the over-dilated blood vessels in your brain.” She is explaining the drug’s

Answer 158

pharmacodynamics

Question 159

If you have a receptor site in your body and there exists a drug which fits exactly to that receptor, it is safe to assume that

Answer 159

your body must also have an endogenous form of that drug which it produces naturally

Question 160

When interpreting a drug’s _______, danger is indicated by quantifying the overlap between the effective dose and the toxic dose of the drug.

Answer 160

therapeutic index

Question 161

The _______ is the preferred method for expressing a drug’s safety for use in humans because it relies on data measuring effectiveness and lethality in the general human population.

Answer 161

margin of safety

Question 162

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

Answer 162

acts as a “molecular switch” in the transition from drug use to drug dependence and addiction, and serves as a key mediator in the neural effects of antidepressant therapy.