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Anthropology 1101 > Test 1 - Chapters 1-4 > Flashcards

Test 1 - Chapters 1-4 Flashcards

1
Q

Anthropology

A
  1. Focuses on both biological and cultural characteristics and variation of evolution.
  2. Broad-scope
    scientific study of people from all periods of time
    and in all areas of the world.
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2
Q

Cultural Anthropology

A

The study of:
1. Learned patterns of behavior and knowledge
2. Characteristic of a society and of how they vary.

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3
Q

Culture

A
  1. Learned
  2. Nonrandom
  3. Systematic behavior
  4. Knowledge
  5. Transmitted from generation to generation
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4
Q

Linguistics

A
  1. The study of language in cross-cultural perspective
  2. The origin and evolution of language
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5
Q

Physical Anthropology

A

A branch of anthropology concerned with human biology and evolution

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6
Q

Applied Anthropology

A
  1. Applies anthropological theory to practical problems.
  2. Covers all 4 sub-disciplines attempting to help contemporary societies.
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7
Q

Science

A
  1. learning about the world by applying the principles of scientific thinking, which includes
    1. empirical observation
    2. hypotheses to explain those observations
    3. testing hypotheses in valid and reliable ways
  2. Also refers to the organized body of knowledge that results from scientific study.
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8
Q

Inductive

A
  1. describes reasoning that involves using specific observations: such as
    1. observed patterns, to make a general conclusion.
    2. starts with a set of premises, based mainly on experience or experimental evidence.
      It uses those premises to generalize a conclusion.
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9
Q

Hypothetical deductive

A
  • Research about your topic
    • Then you come up with a hypothesis
    • Test it
    • See if you can disprove it
      Then accept it if you can’t disprove it
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10
Q

Paradigm

A

(Thomas Kuhn):

* The totality of the knowledge of that discipline 
* Each discipline has a paradigm
* Supported by old researchers, scholars.
* Older scholars control the paradigm and will not accept the new
* New scholars are challenging the old paradigm
* Science grows by different paradigms Used to be every 50 yrs, now its every 25 with a new paradigm
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11
Q

History of Evolution

A
  1. Titus Lucretius (40 BCE):
    ○ Atomist - Everything is in motion - Everything is atoms, full of space.
    ○ Nucleus - positives
    ○ Electrons - negatives
    ○ Protons -
  2. Archbishop James Ussher (1670):
    ○ Built up the genealogy of the bible
    ○ Believed that the word only came to be in 4004 BCE
    ○ Making earth only 6000 years old
  3. William Paley (1770)
    Invented Natural Theology (Intelligent Design)
    Complexity’s of the natural word
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12
Q

Darwin

A
  • Indonesia -> studying beetles -> found different species and characteristics -> developed the theory of evolution.
  • Wallace pushed him to publish his work on evolution.
  • Origin of Species - (1859):
    • Concept of natural selection
      § Change through time due to environmental pressures
      □ Better adaptive - healthier - produce more offspring
      Not adaptive - unhealthy - less offspring
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13
Q

Genetics

A

Genetics is the scientific study of genes and heredity—of how certain qualities or traits are passed from parents to offspring as a result of changes in DNA sequence. A gene is a segment of DNA that contains instructions for building one or more molecules that help the body work

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14
Q

Prokaryotic cell

A
  • Ancestral organism without a cell nucleus
    • are single-celled organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea.
    • Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, have no nucleus, and lack organelles.
    • All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell wall.
      Many also have a capsule or slime layer made of polysaccharide
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15
Q

Eukaryotic Cell

A
  • Organisms with a cell containing a nucleus (with chromosomes with a cytoplasm containing organelles
  • The eukaryotes constitute the domain of Eukarya, organisms whose cells have a membrane bound nucleus.
  • All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms are eukaryotes.
    They constitute a major group of life forms alongside the two groups of prokaryotes: the Bacteria and the Archaea.
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16
Q

Chromosome

A

Thread-like structures found in the nucleus of cells.
When the cell is not undergoing reproduction the chromosomes are wrapped around “spools” called HISTONES. When the cell is undergoing reproduction, either MITIOSIS or MEIOSIS, the chromosomes condense into rod-shape structure as seen in pictures of them.
- Humans have 46 chromosomes = Chromosomes are found in blood cells
- 22 pairs (non-sex chromosomes referred to as autosome)
23rd pair is the sex chromosomes

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17
Q

Karyotype

A
  • The standardized classification and arrangement of chromosomes.
  • A description of the number and kinds of chromosomes in a cell. Each species has a unique karyotype.
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18
Q

Homologous Chromosome

A
  • Chromosomes of the same pair containing the same genes but not necessarily the same alleles.
  • Same shape, size and genes. But may carry different alleles for particular genes
  • These are chromosomes that normally pair during cell reproduction.
  • Except for the sex determining chromosomes (X and Y) homologous chromosomes have identical LOCI.
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19
Q

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A
  • A double coiled helix consisting mainly of nucleotide bases.
  • These bases allow the chromosomes to be replicated with great accuracy plus they make up the genetic for the manufacture of proteins.
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20
Q

Nucleotide Bases in DNA

A
  • There are 4 nucleotide bases that combine in a very rigid fashion to
    1) accurately reproduce chromosomes and
    2) is the code for the making of proteins.
  • The four bases are Adenine with Thymine and Guanine with Cytosine We have 3 billion base pairs.
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21
Q

Locus (Loci)

A
  • Location: The physical place on a chromosome where a gene resides
  • In genetics, a locus (pl: loci) is a specific, fixed position on a chromosome where a particular gene or genetic marker is located.
  • Each chromosome carries many genes, with each gene occupying a different position or locus; in humans, the total number of protein-coding genes in a complete haploid set of 23 chromosomes is estimated at 19,000–20,000.
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22
Q

Gene

A
  • A sequence of base pairs in DNA molecule that codes for a specific protein.
  • Hereditary factors
  • The modern study of genetics was founded on Gregor Mendel published 1866 pea plants
    - Important ideas: hereditary units = genes, are paired
  • The unit of hereditary material found at a single locus, pair of homologous chromosomes.
  • The gene is the sequence of nucleotide bases that is the recipe for a protein.
  • The gene is also called “coding DNA».
  • A problem is that we have about 22,000 genes but we have over 100,000 genetic traits.
    The gene is composed of exons and introns.
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23
Q

Exon

A
  • Exons are termed nucleic acid coding sequences, which are present in mRNA.
  • Exons are the transcribed part of the nucleotide sequence in mRNA that’s liable for protein synthesis.
  • Coding area of DNA
  • Segments of nucleotide bases that has meaning when spliced together.
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24
Q

Intron

A
  • Introns are the non-coding sequences present in the hnRNA, which are removed by RNA splicing before translation.
  • Introns are the transcribed part of the nucleotide sequence in an mRNA and bound to carry the non-coding part for the proteins.
  • Non-coding area of DNA
    Segments of nucleotide bases that act as spacer between exons.
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25
Q

Allele

A
  • Alternative forms of a gene.
  • Variants of a particular gene
  • Ex. 1 purple allele and 1 white allele –> will separate during the sex cell production
  • The alternate form of the gene, single loci, pair of homologous chromosomes
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26
Q

Homozygnous Condition

A

Having identical alleles at a single locus, pair of homologous chromosomes.

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27
Q

Heterozygous Condition

A
  • The condition where a single allele determines the expression in the phenotype.
  • This condition is associated with the X chromosome
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28
Q

Genotype

A
  • The genetic construction of an individual
  • Combination of the actual genetic composition of an organism.
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29
Q

Phenotype

A
  • The observable and measurable characteristics of an organism/person.
  • Ie. Trait
  • Results from the interaction of genotype and the environment.
  • The physical expression of the genotype.
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30
Q

Dominant Allele

A
  • The trait that is seen in the hybrid.
  • Mendel -> in his study with 2 varieties of pea plants
  • Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) - study of pea plants 1865
  • An allele that is always expressed in the phenotype in both the homozygous and heterozygous condition.
  • By convention dominant genes are represented by capital letters.
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31
Q

Recessive

A
  • The trait that is not seen in the hybrid is said to be recessive.
  • Mendel -> in his study with 2 varieties of pea plants
  • Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) - study of pea plants 1865
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32
Q

Co-Dominant Allele

A
  • When two different alleles of the same gene are present, both alleles are expressed in the phenotype.
  • Ex When someone has AB blood type
    The situation where two dominant alleles are both expressed.
33
Q

Recessive Alleles

A
  • The trait that is not seen in a hybrid
  • An allele that is only express in the homozygous condition.
  • In the heterozygous condition it is completely MASKED by the dominant allele.
  • However, if the gene is carried on the X chromosome, it will be expressed in the hemizygous condition.
  • By convention recessive alleles are represented by lower-case letters.
34
Q

ABO Blood Groups

A
  • A blood type that consists of 2 basic antigens, A and B. Blood type O if the absence of both antigens.
  • Many different molecules can be found on red blood cells -> molecules called polymorphic
    • Poly = many, Morfic = structure
  • Fetal blood at birth or transfusion -> molecules introduced into the blood -> body reacts to these foreign molecules producing antibodies.
    • Entity that triggers this action is called an antigen
    • Antigen-antibody reaction define differences in blood proteins
  • Genes A and B are co-dominates while gene O is a recessive allele.
35
Q

Genome

A
  • The complete set of base pairs within the DNA of a cell. The DNA in a body cell contains about 6 billion base pairs.
  • The total genes carried by individuals of a species.
  • Human have about 22,000 genes
36
Q

Polygenic

A

A phenotype trait due to two or more genes.

37
Q

Pleiotropic

A

A single gene that contributes to a number of phenotypic traits.

38
Q

Autosomes

A
  • All the chromosomes except the sex determining chromosomes.
  • In human, there are 22 pairs of autosomes.
39
Q

X-Chromosomes

A
  • The larger of the two sex chromosomes.
  • Females usually possess 2 “X” chromosomes - Called homologous sex chromosomes
  • Males usually posses 1 “X” and 1 “Y” chromosome
40
Q

Y-Chromosomes

A
  • The smaller of the two sex chromosomes
  • Females usually do not posses a “Y” chromosome
  • Males usually posses 1 “X” and 1 “Y” chromosome
41
Q

Somatic Cells

A
  • are all the body cells, and they are diploid with a full compliment of chromosomes.
  • are the cells in the body other than sperm and egg cells (which are called germ cells).
  • In humans, somatic cells are diploid, meaning they contain two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent
42
Q

Germinal Cells

A
  • Specialized haploid cells with 1/2 the full compliment of chromosomes; sperm and egg
  • Germ line refers to the sex cells (eggs and sperm) that sexually reproducing organisms use to pass on their genomes from one generation to the next (parents to offspring).
  • Egg and sperm cells are called germ cells, in contrast to the other cells of the body, which are called somatic cells
43
Q

Mitosis

A
  • Form of cell division whereby one-cell organisms divide and body cells divide in growth and replacement.
  • In multicellular organisms this is the growth and replacement of body cells
  • Process of cell duplication in somatic cells which results in growth, repair and replacement.
  • Mitosis begins with one diploid cell and ends with two daughter somatic cells.
44
Q

Meiosis in Males

A
  • Form of cell division occurring in specialized tissue in the testes and ovaries that lead to the production of gametes or sex cells.
  • Specialized cell division that results in the production of sex cells = gametes
  • Only happens in the male testes and ovaries in the female.
  • Process of cell division to produce germinal cells (egg or sperm).
  • Meiosis begins with one diploid cell and ends with four haploid cells.
  • The process is ongoing 24/7 in males making millions of sperm cells.
45
Q

Oocytes (Meiosis in females)

A
  • When the female is in the womb of her mother, meiosis starts by forming immature haploid eggs called oocytes.
  • These oocytes remain immature until the female reaches puberty at which time every month an oocyte matures into a mature germinal cell which is then fertilized by a sperm or it is naturally destroyed.
46
Q

Proemial Imprinting

A
  • Our genes come in pairs, one from out female parent and one.
  • From our male parent.
  • We do not know which is which but cells know
47
Q

Crossing-over

A
  • The phenomenon whereby section of homologous chromosomes are interchanged during meiosis (aka. Genetic material exchanged from mother and father)
  • Provides a mechanism whereby new combinations of alleles can arise among genes that exist on the same chromosome.
  • The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
    Parental and maternal chromosomes exchange genetic material
48
Q

Proteins

A
  • Long chains of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds (a polypeptide chain).
  • Function of enzymes
  • Linus Pauling (1901 - 1994) pioneered the study of proteins
  • Complex molecules composed of amino acids
  • A macromolecule of one or more polypeptide chains of amino acids.
  • Proteins are responsible for caring out most of the cell’s metabolic activities.
  • Proteins are made in the cytoplasm of the cell and they are responsible for the organism’s phenotype.
49
Q

Amino acids

A
  • Molecules that are the basic building block of proteins.
  • Folds into complex patterns
  • Hemoglobin molecule composed of 4 chains = 574 amino acids
    • Alpha chain = 141, Beta chain = 146
  • a chain of micro molecules that make a protein.
  • There are 20 amino acids and they must be put into the correct sequence to make the protein.
50
Q

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A
  • A type of nucleic acid based on the sugar ribose; exists in cells as messenger RNA and transfer RNA.
  • A single strand consisting of nucleotide bases. A-T and G-C of DNA, in RNA Thymine is replaced by Uracil.
  • Hence, Adenine bonds with Uracil (A-U). While DNA is a library, RNA is a genetic workhorse.
51
Q

mRNA

A
  • Form of RNA that copies the DNA code in the nucleus and transports it to the ribosome.
  • Also called Messanger RNA (mRNA)
52
Q

Transcription

A
  • In the nucleus of the cell mRNA transcribes the DNA code to a RNA code.
  • The mRNA leaves the nucleus.
  • miRNA (micro RNA) is a small series of about 20 nucleotide bases that can halt the mDNA for a period of time or dismantle the DNA.
  • Prevent over production of proteins.
53
Q

Codon

A
  • A sequence of three pairs of the DNA molecule that code for a specific amino acid.
  • A sequence of three nucleotide bases which contain meaning.
  • The codon calls for one specific amino acid or gives a command such as “start”, “check”, or “stop”
54
Q

Ribosome

A
  • Small spherical bodies within the cytoplasm of the cell in which protein synthesis takes place.
  • Structures in the cytoplasm where protein production takes place.
  • Ribosomes are very important.
    For life, even bacteria which do have a nucleus depend on ribosomes.
55
Q

Translation

A

The ribosome translates the RNA code to amino acids in the correct sequence to form a protein.

56
Q

DNA

A
  • A nucleic acid that codes for the structure of proteins among other functions.
  • Basic structure consists of a pair of extremely long chains composed of many nucleotides lying parallel to one another
57
Q

mtDNA Mitochondrial DNA

A
  • Circular string of DNA found in the cytoplasm of cells.
  • mtDNA provides energy.
  • There are hundreds of mtDNA in a cell while the is only the chromosome containing DNA in the nucleus of the cell.
  • Therefore it is easier to find mtDNA than nuclear DNA and in the early days of paleogenetics analysis was done on mtDNA.
  • Also, mtDNA has a more simple inheritance than nuclear DNA. Our mtDNA is inherited only from our mothers.
58
Q

Epigenetics

A
  • Several mechanisms within the cell that do not involve changes in the DNA, which controls and regulates the expression of genes.
  • The mechanisms by which other factors influence and alter the phenotype without changing the DNA.
  • The environment, internal or external may influence the “gene”
59
Q

Methylation

A
  • The methy group is chemicals that attach to the nuclear base cytosine.
  • Methylation lowers the gene expression and when heavily methylated the gene is turned off.
  • All somatic cells have a full compliment of chromosomes but cells are specialized so they only need a few genes. Methylation turns off all the other genes.
  • Methylation does not alter the genetic code but due to environmental condition it alters the phenotype.
  • Methylation can occur due to stress, diet and be responsible for cancer.
  • Cells contain a gene that tell them when they are old, they should die.
  • If that gene gets mitated and removed it? uncontrolled reproduction forming a tumor - Cancer.
60
Q

Acetylation

A
  • Proteins that replicate DNA and repair damaged genetic material are created directly by acetylation.
  • Acetylation also helps in DNA transcription.
  • Acetylation determines the energy that proteins use during duplication and this determines the accuracy of copying the genes
61
Q

Histones

A
  • A histone is a protein that provides structural support for a chromosome.
  • Each chromosome contains a long molecule of DNA, which must fit into the cell nucleus.
  • To do that, the DNA wraps around complexes of histone proteins, giving the chromosome a more compact shape.
62
Q

Chromatin

A
  • The chromosome plus a protein enzyme that covers and protect the DNA.
  • The chromatin is when the chromosome is in the thin string stage, and it is from the.
  • Chromatin that the code for a protein is transcribed from the DNA to mRNA.
63
Q

Blastula

A
  • Shortly after fertilization a blastula consisting of a ring of about 120 fetal stem cells.
  • A blastula is an early embryonic stage in various animal species that forms via cell division and differentiation post-fertilization.
  • It has a hollow, spherical shape containing a fluid-filled cavity known as the blastocoel.
64
Q

Fertilization

A

The union of the sperm and egg to form a zygote by day 5 it becomes a Blastocyst.

65
Q

Pluripotency

A
  • Embryonic Stem cells (pluripotency).
  • These are cells in early embryonic development.
  • These cells are undifferentiated, that is they have no specialized job.
  • Then it goes though the process of Gastrulation where three layers of cells are created endoderm, (digestive system and the respiratory system), mesoderm, (skeletal structure, heart, blood vessels, etc.) and ectoderm (skin, brain, spinal cord teeth, face etc. At this time cells become full Tim specialists.
66
Q

Stem Cells

A
  • Undifferentiated cells with the potential to become many types of adult specialized cells.
  • These are cells in early embryonic development.
  • These, cells are undifferentiated, that is that have no/specialized job.
  • Then these cells are assigned specific jobs, eye, nose, liver, stomach etc, they then become specialized for their specific job and through methylation turn off
67
Q

Gastrulation

A
  • Embryonic Stem cells (pluripotency).
  • These are cells in early embryonic development.
  • These cells are undifferentiated, that is they have no specialized job.
    0 Then it goes though the process of Gastrulation where three layers of cells are created endoderm, (digestive system and the respiratory system), mesoderm, (skeletal structure, heart, blood vessels, etc.) and ectoderm (skin, brain, spinal cord teeth, face etc. At this time cells become full Tim specialists.
68
Q

Paint Pot Theory

A

When Mendel began his experiments, one of the prevailing beliefs about heredity was the “paint-pot” theory. According to this theory, the traits of the two parents blended in their children much as two pigments are blended in a can of paint.

69
Q

Mendel’s 1st. Law: Segregation of Genes

A
  • This law disproves the paint pot theory and demonstrates that inheritable traits are transmitted as discrete unit which do not been with no contaminate each other.
  • Mendel’s a is ex 100% accurate but it is accurate most of the time
70
Q

Population

A

Individuals that form an interbreeding community at a given location. The population is the unit of study for evolutionary research.

71
Q

Gene Pool

A
  • The sum of all alleles carried by the members of a population.
  • All the genetic material of a population.
72
Q

Evolution

A
  • Change in the frequencies of alleles within a gene pool of a population over time.
    1. Biological change through time due to GENETIC change.
    2. It happens to populations not individuals.
    3. Requires variation in the population
    4. Requires genetic to past traits from one generation to the next.
    5. Evolution responds to the phenotype/environment interplay.
    6. Evolution occurs between generations.
73
Q

Evolutionary Forces

A
  • There are only 4 forces and the question is, do these forces increase or decrease variation in the population.
  • Increasing variation leads to change, decreases can lead to extinction.
74
Q

Mutation

A
  • An alteration of the genetic material.
  • A random, spontaneous change in the DNA.
  • Mutations increase variation both within and between populations.
  • But note there are two kinds of mutations.
    1). Mutation in the somatic cell where the individual gets the genetic change.
    2). Mutation in the germinal cell so the new offspring has the mutation but not the parents.
75
Q

Gene Drift

A
  • The situation in a small population in which the allelic frequencies of the F1 generation will differ from those of the parental generation due to sampling error.
  • A change in allele frequencies due to random fluctuations.
  • Also called “sampling error” or “Sewall-Wright effect.
  • Variation is decreased within the pool but increased between pools.
76
Q

Gene Drift Founder Principle

A

A sub-set of Gene Drift.
The establishment of a new population by a few original founders whose gene pool is a little aberrant from the larger pool that it was derived

77
Q

Gene Flows

A
  • The process in which alleles from one population are introduced into another population.
  • It decreases the variation between populations but increases variation within the population.
  • It happens two way:
    § 1) Unidirectional or
    § 2) bidirectional.
    For humans, gene flow is a powerful force
78
Q

Natural Selection

A
  • Differential fertility and mortal-ity of variants within a population.
  • Charles Darwin -> On the Origin of Species 1859
  • Principle of inheritance -> Any selected variety will tend to propagate its new modified form
  • Environment applies pressure on a population so that some individuals have greater reproductive success than others.
  • Variation decreases within the population but increases between between population
    2 ways:
    Unidirectional where all the individuals of a population take on the current best trait
79
Q

Balanced Polymorphism

A
  • A genetic balance when the environment applies to pressures on a population so that the heterozygote has the selective advantage. = Sickle Cell Anemia.
  • Balanced polymorphism is a situation in which two different versions of a gene are maintained in a population of organisms because individuals carrying both versions are better able to survive than those who have two copies of either version alone

Anthropology 1101 (2 decks)

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