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Anatomy & Physiology II > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The Endocrine System

A

The second communication system of the body (after nervous system)

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2
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical messengers

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3
Q

Endocrine glands

A

“Ductless” glands

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4
Q

Primary glands

A

are hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, thymus

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5
Q

Types of Hormones

A

Amino Acid Based Hormones

Steroid Hormones

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6
Q

Amino Acid Based Hormones

A

Water soluble and include peptides & proteins. React with their target cells by activating membrane bound receptors and setting off 2nd messenger systems. Because they are water soluble they don’t easily cross the lipid bilayer (hydrophobic region) of cell membrane. These types of hormones move “unbound” within the water based plasma of the vascular system.

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7
Q

Steroid Hormones

A

Lipid soluble therefore easily cross lipid bilayer and bind to intracellular receptors to alter gene activation in the cell nucleus. Lipid soluble hormones circulate “bound to proteins” through the vascular system. Any protein bound hormone (or any drug or compound) are non-functional until they are dissociated or unbound from their protein carriers.

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8
Q

Hormone characteristics

A

1) Regulate metabolic function of other cells
2) Have significant lag times
3) Have prolonged effects
4) Alter plasma membrane permeability
5) Stimulate protein synthesis
6) Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
7) Stimulate mitosis

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9
Q

Target Cells

A

Specify the action of a specific hormone. Must have receptors either on the cell surface (amino acid based hormones) or intracellular receptors (steroid hormones) for hormones to attach to.

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10
Q

Target Cell Activation Depends On

A

1) Blood levels (quantity) of hormones, 2) Number of receptors (quantity) on the target cell
3) Binding affinity of hormone to receptor.

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11
Q

Up-regulations

A

More receptors are formed on, or within the target cell.

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12
Q

Down-regulation

A

Loss or decrease of receptors associated with the target cell.

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13
Q

Most cases of change in receptors numbers in through

A

down regulation

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14
Q

Stimuli for Hormone Release

A

1) Humoral – response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients
2) Neural – ex. Sympathetic nervous system in the adrenal medulla
3) Hormonal – release of hormones in response to other hormones.

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15
Q

Most stimuli for hormone release in the body follow the

A

“Negative Feedback Pathway”

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16
Q

Major Glands

A

1) Hypothalamus

2) Pituitary

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17
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Superior to the pituitary gland and physically connected to the pituitary by the
infundibulum.

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18
Q

Pituitary

A

Called the “Master Gland” of the body by the majority of literature and endocrinologist.

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19
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

“Adenohypophysis”

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20
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A

“Neurohypophysis”

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21
Q

Adenohypophysis

A

Glandular tissue

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22
Q

The hypothalamus sends a chemical signal to the anterior pituitary, either through “releasing” hormones for the synthesis and release of a tropic hormone

A

TRH

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23
Q

an “inhibitory” hormone to shut off the synthesis and release of hormones

A

TIH

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24
Q

Tropic Hormones

A

Hormones which stimulate the release of other hormones from specific target endocrine glands.

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25
Q

Tropic Hormones from the Anterior Pituitary

A 
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) 
Adrenal Corticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) 
Prolactin (PRL)
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26
Q

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

A

Release is triggered by TRH (TIH) from the hypothalamus. Targets Thyroid Gland

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27
Q

Adrenal Corticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)

A

Triggered by ACTRH (ACTIH) from hypothalamus. Targets the Adrenal Cortex.

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28
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

A

GnRH (GnIH) from hypothalamus. Targets the Ovaries & Testes.

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29
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A

GnRH (GnIH) from hypothalamus. Targets the Ovaries & Testes.

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30
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A

PRH (PIH) from the hypothalamus. Targets the Mammary Glands.

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31
Q

Growth Hormone (GH)

A

GHRH (GHIH) from hypothalamus. Released from the anterior pituitary however is not a “tropic hormone” by definition but rather is a direct acting hormone primarily on skeletal muscle and the skeletal system.

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32
Q

Non-Homeostatic Conditions Related To Growth Hormone

A

Hypersecretion and Hyposecretion

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33
Q

Hypersecretion

A

of GH results in gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults

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34
Q

Hyposecretion

A

of GH causes dwarfism in children but generally no problems in adults

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35
Q

Neurohypophysis

A

Neural Tissue

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36
Q

Oxytocin

A

Stimulant of uterine contractions during child birth and mammary gland contraction for the nursing infant. Follows a “Positive Feedback Pathway”.

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37
Q

ADH

A

Controlled through osmoreceptors that monitor solute concentrations.

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38
Q

Abnormally high concentrations of solutes

A

increase (↑) of ADH release to preserve water in the body.

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39
Q

Abnormally low concentrations of solutes

A

decrease (↓) ADH release to promote diuresis or more urine output.

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40
Q

Thyroid Gland

A

The largest “pure” endocrine gland

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41
Q

Where is the Thyroid gland located?

A

Base of the neck behind adam’s apple

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42
Q

“pure” means

A

releases only hormones from “ductless” endocrine glands and does not have an “exocrine” function such as in the Pancreas.

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43
Q

Three (3) Thyroid hormones (TH) are

A

T4 – Thyroxine
T3 – Triiodothyronine
Calcitonin

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44
Q

T4 – Thyroxine

A

Tyrosine plus four bound Iodine atoms

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45
Q

T3 – Triiodothyronine

A

Tyrosine plus 3 bound Iodine atoms

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46
Q

Thyroid Hormones, T4 & T3, function in some degree in regulating

A

Blood pressure, Tissue growth, developing Nervous and Skeletal system, Reproductive system and Basal Metabolic Rate.

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47
Q

Calcitonin

A

Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts and stimulates uptake of calcium into the bone

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48
Q

Non-Homeostatic Conditions Related To The Thyroid Gland

A

Hypothyroid and Hyperthyroid

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49
Q

Hypothyroid

A

Generally occurs due to a deficiency in iodine therefore decreased TH. “Goiter” is an enlargement of the thyroid gland as more & more TSH is released from the anterior pituitary.

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50
Q

Hyperthyroid

A

Autoimmune disease results in antibodies similar in shape to TSH therefore stimulates excess TH release. These individuals may show signs of elevated BMR, elevated heart rate, tremors, excessive diaphoresis (sweating). “Exophthalmos” results from edema (fluid) accumulating posterior to the eyeballs. (Graves Disease)

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51
Q

Myxedema

A

is the adult form while Cretinism is the similar condition in infants

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52
Q

Parathyroid Glands

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood concentrations of calcium by stimulating osteoclasts

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53
Q

Where is the parathyroid gland located?

A

next to the two thyroid gland lobes in the neck

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54
Q

Adrenal Glands

A

Two tissue segments or regions, glandular and nervous tissue which make up this endocrine gland are analogous or similar to the pituitary gland from a histology viewpoint.

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55
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

on top of the kidneys

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56
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

Outer most layer of glandular or secretory cells which are similar to the anterior pituitary gland. The adrenal cortex secretes the “Corticosteroids”. Release of these are stimulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary to regulate electrolytes in extracellular fluid.

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57
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

Innermost region of the adrenal gland are nerve fibers from the Sympathetic Nervous System, or in laymen’s terms, the “Fight or Flight System.” This makes the medulla area similar to the posterior pituitary gland.

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58
Q

The adrenal medulla secretes

A

the adrenalins, Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.

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59
Q

These elevate blood glucose, constrict blood vessels

A

makes the heart beat faster and stronger, increase respiratory rate and dilate the respiratory passage ways.

60
Q

Epinephrine primarily targets the heart

A

leading to its stimulation while Norepinephrine is basically active in the walls of blood vessels and walls of the trachea and bronchioles of the respiratory system

61
Q

Non-Homeostatic Conditions Related To The Adrenal Glands

A

Hypersecretion and Hyposecretion

62
Q

Hypersecretion

A

from the adrenal medulla

63
Q

Hyposecretion

A

from the adrenal medulla, no significant adverse effects in the body, however this is a controversial theory.

64
Q

Pheochromocytoma

A

generally from a tumor of the medulla. Causes increased release of the catecholamines, Epinephrine & Norepinephrine and the symptoms of increased sympathetic nervous system activity in the body.

65
Q

Pancreas

A

An exocrine and endocrine gland

66
Q

Pancreatic cells called

A

“islets of Langerhans”

67
Q

Pancreatic cells

A

where are found the Alpha cells that produce the hormone “Glucagon”

68
Q

Glucagon

A

increases blood glucose

concentration through the processes of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver

69
Q

The pancreatic Beta cells produce

A

the hormone “Insulin”

70
Q

Insulin

A

lowers blood glucose concentration

71
Q

Insulin is initially synthesized as

A

“Proinsulin”

72
Q

Proinsulin, or any “pro-drug” implies

A

that in this form it is inactive or in the case of (pro)insulin cannot mobilize glucose from blood in to cells. Further metabolism of proinsulin must occur before it is in the active form of Insulin.

73
Q

Non- Homeostatic Conditions Related to The Pancreas

A

Diabetes Mellitus (DM), Hyposecretion, Hypoactivity

74
Q

Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

A

Results from hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin

75
Q

Hyposecretion

A

is an inability to produce enough insulin to drive the glucose from the blood into the cells. This is “Type I Diabetes”

76
Q

Hypoactivity

A

is a case where there is a high enough concentration of insulin
being produced but generally a decrease in quantity of receptors for the insulin to bind to. This is “Type II Diabetes”

77
Q

Prolonged, uncontrolled elevated blood glucose levels may result in a

A

“Diabetic Coma”

78
Q

Hyperinsulinism, or excess insulin within the blood relative to the blood glucose may result

A

“Insulin Shock”

79
Q

Both of these conditions can lead to confusion, loss of consciousness and death

A

Diabetic Coma & Insulin Shock

80
Q

The Cardinal Signs & Symptoms in Any Type of Uncontrolled Diabetes Are

A

Polyuria, Polydipsia, Polyphagia

81
Q

Polyuria

A

Excess urine output

82
Q

Polydipsia

A

Excessive thirst

83
Q

Polyphagia

A

Excessive hunger and food consumption

84
Q

Pineal Gland

A

Hormone is melatonin which is involved with day/night cycles

85
Q

Where is the pineal gland located?

A

deep in the brain in an area called the epithalamus

86
Q

Thymus

A

Essential for the initial development of the immune system in the very young. Hormone prepares the T-lymphocytes of the immune system to combat intracellular pathogens. Gland begins to atrophy with age and becomes non-functional.

87
Q

Where is the thymus gland located?

A

located behind the sternum (breastbone) but in front of the heart

88
Q

Other Hormone Producing Atypical Endocrine Structures

A

Heart, Gastrointestinal tract, Placenta, Kidneys, Skin, Adipose

89
Q

Heart

A

Hormone is Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) which helps to regulate blood pressure

90
Q

Gastrointestinal tract

A

Releases digestive hormones

91
Q

Placenta

A

Hormones to help regulate the course of pregnancy

92
Q

Kidneys

A

Hormone, Erythropoietin which signals production of red blood cells in the bone marrow

93
Q

Skin

A

Cholecalciferol hormone precursor to Vitamin D

94
Q

Adipose

A

Hormone Leptin involved in the feeling of being satiated or full and increases cellular energy.

95
Q

Blood

A

Composition; pH 7.35-7.45, Temperature 380C, Liquid plasma, & Formed elements

96
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Red Blood Cells (RBC’s) – Bi-concave, anucleated cells. Approximately 97% of
content is comprised of Hemoglobin (Hb). Classic example of “complementarity of structure
and function” which means that the anatomy of the RBC is critical to its normal function. RBC’s have an approximate life span of 100-120 days.

97
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Protein consisting of 2 alpha and 2 beta chains. Each chain contains 1 heme molecule bound to 1 iron atom (Fe). Oxygen specifically binds to the iron. Therefore 4 molecules of oxygen can be carried by 1 Hb molecule per RBC. Carbon dioxide binds to the globin chains of Hb.

98
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

refers to the synthesis of all formed elements of blood within the bone marrow, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets

99
Q

The three formed elements of blood all originate from

A

the “hemocytoblasts” stem cell.

100
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

Synthesis of Red Blood Cells

101
Q

To few RBC’s leads to

A

to tissue hypoxia, (decreased) oxygen concentration delivered to the cells.

102
Q

In this case the “kidneys” release

A

the hormone erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis within the bone marrow.

103
Q

Hematocrit

A

The percentage (%) of RBC’s in the total blood volume

104
Q

Generally 45% is considered

A

a normal hematocrit

105
Q

Erythrocyte Disorders

A

Anemia, Polycythemia, Thalassemias

106
Q

Anemia

A

A symptom rather that a disease. Decreased blood oxygen levels to support tissue metabolism. Signs & Symptoms include; Fatigue, paleness, shortness of breath, chills

107
Q

Hemorrhagic anemia

A

result of blood loss

108
Q

Hemolytic anemia

A

prematurely ruptured RBC’s

109
Q

Aplastic anemia

A

Destruction or inhibition of red bone marrow

110
Q

Iron-deficiency anemia

A

Insufficient iron intake or absorption. Microcytic anemia

111
Q

Pernicious anemia

A

deficiency of Vitamin B12 due to lack of “intrinsic factor” from the stomach. Also known as Macrocytic anemia.

112
Q

Polycythemia

A

Excess RBC’s that increase blood viscosity

113
Q

Polycythemia vera

A

Bone cancer leading to excess RBC’s

114
Q

Blood doping

A

A self-induced polycythemia used to increase the quantity of RBC’s therefore the amount of oxygen supplied to the cells. This practice also results in thick blood in these individuals and often leads to a lethal outcome.

115
Q

Thalassemias

A

Faulty globin chain in Hb

116
Q

Sickle cell anemia

A

One amino acid out of 146 in a “beta chain” of hemoglobin is wrong leading to sickle-shaped cells and abnormal clotting

117
Q

Leukocytes

A

White Blood Cells (WBC’s) – Of all the formed elements of blood, the WBC is the only “complete cell” consisting of a nucleus and various organelles.

118
Q

WBC’s make up

A

approximately 1% of the total blood volume (along with the platelets)

119
Q

Leukopoiesis

A

Synthesis of white blood cells and originate from hemocytoblasts in the bone marrow as do all of the formed elements

120
Q

Leukemias

A

Uncontrolled proliferation of WBC’s

121
Q

Immature WBC’s found in the bloodstream are

A

non-functional

122
Q

Bone marrow is pre-occupied with the production of ____ therefore _________ formation declines.

A

WBC’s, RBC’s & platelet

123
Q

Platelets

A

Basically cell fragments containing serotonin, calcium, enzymes, ADP and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF). Function to form a temporary plug to seal broken blood vessels.
Originate from hemocytoblasts in the bone marrow. Normal life span approximately 10 days. Kept inactive, or prevented from forming an unnecessary plug by nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin in the plasma.

124
Q

Hemostasis

A

Defined as the process to stop vascular bleeding. Consists of the following three processes

125
Q

Following three processes in hemostasis

A

Vascular spasm, Platelet plug formation, Coagulation

126
Q

Vascular spasm

A

Vasoconstriction at site of injury from contraction of smooth muscle in the walls.

127
Q

Platelet plug formation

A

Platelets don’t typically stick to each other or unbroken vessels

128
Q

Coagulation

A

Blood clotting involving over 30 various clotting factors

129
Q

Clot Retraction

A

Following hemostasis, stabilization of the clot by fibrin strands at the site of injury must take place to allow for healing of tissues and prevent the clot from breaking apart too early resulting in further bleeding.

130
Q

Fibrinolysis

A

Dissolving of un-needed clots

131
Q

Plasmin

A

The natural “clot buster” in the body. Activated by plasminogen

132
Q

Tissue Plasminogen

Activator (TPA)

A

secreted by endothelial cells lining blood vessels or injected in patients suspected of having coronary (heart) or cerebral (brain) clots forming.

133
Q

Unnecessary clotting is also prevented by

A

1) Smooth Endothelial Lining of blood vessel walls in the lumen
2) Heparin secreted by endothelial cells in the vascular wall
3) Vitamin E quinone (an anticoagulant) also secreted from the endothelial lining (cells)
4) Aspirin
5) Warfarin

134
Q

Aspirin

A

Inhibits thromboxane A2, one of the clotting factors

135
Q

Warfarin

A

Oral anticoagulant

136
Q

Thrombus

A

“Stationary Clot” in an unbroken vessel. Thrombi can block circulation resulting in tissue death (necrosis).

137
Q

Embolus

A

A “moving clot” or thrombus in the blood stream

138
Q

Thrombocytopenia

A

Deficient number of circulating platelets. Patients show “petechiae” from widespread hemorrhage resulting in purple spots under the skin.

139
Q

Petechiae

A

Caused by suppression or destruction of bone marrow (e.g., malignancy, radiation)

140
Q

Hemophilia

A

Genetic disorder resulting in a missing gene for one of the coagulation factors

141
Q

Rh Factor

A

Individuals with the Rh antigen on the surface of their RBC are Rh-Positive (Rh+). Those without the Rh antigen are therefore Rh-Negative (Rh-).

142
Q

Universal Donor

A

“Type-O”, every blood type can receive Type-O blood because, Type-O does not have any antigens (A or B) on the surface of the RBC therefore there will be no coagulation or clotting regardless of any antibodies that may be in the recipient’s blood.

143
Q

Universal Recipient

A

“Type-AB” individuals with Type-AB blood can receive any of the blood types (on a short term basis) because they have no plasma antibodies to A or B antigens in their blood. No antibodies means no coagulation or clotting regardless of the blood type or antigen on the surface.

144
Q

AB

A

antigens - A, B
antibodies - none
receive - A, B, AB, O

145
Q

B

A

antigens - B
antibodies - Anti-A (a)
receive - B, O

146
Q

A

A

antigens - A
antibodies - Anti-B (b)
receive - A, O

147
Q

O

A

antigens - None
antibodies - Anti-A (a), Anti-B (b)
receive - O

Anatomy & Physiology II (1 decks)

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