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Cognitive processes > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Folk psychology

A

Term for various assumptions and theories based on the everyday behaviour of ourselves and others

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2
Q

Stimulus

A

An entity in the external environment that can be perceived by the observer

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3
Q

Bit

A

Short for “binary digit”
The most basic unit of information. Every event that occurs in a situation with 2 equally likely outcomes provides one “bit” of info

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4
Q

Information theory

A

A theory suggesting that the information provided by a particular event is inversely related to the probability of its occurrence

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5
Q

Filter model

A

A theory based on the idea that info processing is restricted by channel capacity

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6
Q

Channel capacity

A

The maximum amount of info that can be transmitted by an information processing device

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7
Q

Introspection

A

“Looking inward” to observe your own thoughts and feelings

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8
Q

Primary memory

A

What we are aware of in the “immediately present moment” often called immediate or short term memory

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9
Q

Secondary memory

A

Knowledge acquired at an earlier time that is stored indefinitely, and is absent from awareness. Also called long term memory

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10
Q

Brown Peterson task

A

An experiment in which subjects are given a set of items and then a number to start counting backward by 3 from, after a specific interval they’re asked to recall the items

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11
Q

Ecological approach

A

A form of psychological inquiry that reflects conditions in the real world

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12
Q

Accordances

A

The potential functions or uses of small stimuli (objects and events) in the real world

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13
Q

Information pickup

A

The process whereby we perceive information directly

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14
Q

Schema

A

An expectation concerning what we are likely to find as we explore the world

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15
Q

Perceptual cycle

A

A process where our schema’s guide our exploration of the world and are in turn shaped by what we find there

Schema (directs) exploration (samples) objects/available info (modifies) schema

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16
Q

Cognitive ethology

A

A new research approach that links real-world observations with laboratory based studies

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17
Q

Metacognition

A

Knowledge about the way cognitive processes work.

Understanding our own cognitive processes

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18
Q

Modules

A

Different parts of the brain, each of which is responsible for particular cognitive operations

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19
Q

Phrenology

A

The study of the shape, size, and protrusions of the skull to attempt to discover the relationships between parts of the brain and various mental activities/abilities (Gall, and Spurzheim)

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20
Q

Localization of function

A

The idea that there is a direct correspondence between specific cognitive functions and specific parts of the brain

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21
Q

Law of mass action

A

Learning and memory depend on the total mass of brain tissues remaining rather than properties of individual cells

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22
Q

Law of equipotentiality

A

Although some areas of the cortex may become specialized for certain tasks, any part of an area can (within limits) do the job of any other part of that area

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23
Q

Interactionism

A

Mind and brain are separate substances that interact and influence each other

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24
Q

Epiphenomenalism

A

“Mind” is a superfluous by product of bodily function

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25
Q

Parallelism

A

“Mind” and brain are two aspects of the same reality, and they operate in parallel

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26
Q

Isomorphism

A

Mental events and neural events share the same structure

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27
Q

Sensory system

A

A system that links the physical and perceptual worlds via the nervous system.
Composed of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and distinct regions of the brain dedicated to the perception of information

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28
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

A deficit to produce speech as result of damage to Broca’s area

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29
Q

Broca’s area

A

The area of the brains left hemisphere that is responsible for how words are spoken

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30
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Area of left hemisphere responsible for processing the meaning of words

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31
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

A deficit in the ability to comprehend speech as a result of damage to wernicke’s area

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32
Q

Interhemispheric transfer

A

Communication between the brains hemispheres. Enabled largely by the corpus callosum

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33
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Plays big role in enabling the hemispheres of the brain to interact with each other

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34
Q

Split brain

A

A condition created by severing the corpus callosum

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35
Q

Emergent property

A

Roger sparry’s idea that a property that “emerges” as a result of brain processes, but is not a component of the brain, is neither deductible to, nor a part of a particular region of the brain

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36
Q

Emergent causation

A

In sperrys sense, causation brought about by an emergent property. Once the “mind” emerges from the brain, it has the power to influence lower level processes

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37
Q

Supervenient

A

In sperry’s sense, describe mental states that may simultaneously influence neuronal events and be influenced by them

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38
Q

Event related potential (ERP)

A

An electric signal emitted by the brain after the onset of a stimulus

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39
Q

Positron emissions tomography (PET)

A

An imaging technique in which participants are injected with radioactive substances that mingle with the blood and scanners use it to detect the flow of blood in brain areas

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40
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)

A

A non radioactive magnetic procedure for detecting the flow of oxygenated blood to brain areas

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41
Q

Magnetoencephalography

MEG

A

A non invasive brain imaging technique that directly measures neural activity

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42
Q

Connectionism

A

A theory that focuses on the way cognitive processes work at the physiological/neurological level as opposed to information processing level.
It hold that the brain consists of an enormous number of interconnected neurons and attempts to model cognition as an emergent process of networks of simple units communicating with each other

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43
Q

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A

An MRI-based neuroimaging technique that makes it possible to visualize the white matter tracts within the brain

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44
Q

Neural network

A

Neurons that are functionally related or connected

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45
Q

Hebb rule

A

A connection between two neurons takes place only if both neurons are firing at approximately the same time

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46
Q

Parallel processing

A

Many neural connections may be active at the same time

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47
Q

Serial processing

A

Only one neural activity may take place at any one time

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48
Q

Visual agnosia

A

An inability to identify objects visually even though they can be identified using other senses

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49
Q

Perception

A

The processing of sensory info in such a way that it produces conscious experience and guides action in the world

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50
Q

Cornea

A

The outer tissue of the eye and the first layer that light passes through on its way to the back of the eye

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51
Q

Pupil

A

The space through which light passes on its way to the back of the eye; adjusted in size by the iris ; appears black

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52
Q

Iris

A

Surrounds the pupil responsible for the colour of the eye

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53
Q

Lens

A

The transparent tissue in the eye that refracts light and focuses it on the back of the eye

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54
Q

Retina

A

The tissue at the back of the eye that contains light receptors

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55
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Cells that transduce light energy into a neutral signal

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56
Q

Fovea

A

The region of the retina where photoreceptors are most densely packed

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57
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

The area at the back of the brain that is primarily responsible for the basic processing of visual info

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58
Q

Retinotopic

A

A principle of organization of the primary visual cortex, whereby info falling on adjacent areas of the retina is processed in adjacent areas of the cortex

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59
Q

Achromatopsia

A

A visual deficit characterized by inability to perceive colour because of damage to the area of the brain that processes colour information

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60
Q

Akinetopsia

A

Inability to perceive the motion in objects (motion blindness)

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61
Q

Ventral “what” pathway

A

The stream of visual processing in the brain that is responsible for determining object shape, colour, and meaningful identity

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62
Q

Dorsal “where” pathway

A

The stream of visual processing in the brain that is responsible for determining object location and motion, and which guides action

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63
Q

Feedfrward sweep

A

The propagation of visual info from the primary visual cortex down the “what” and “where” pathways

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64
Q

Re-entrant (feedback) connections

A

Connections between brain areas that allow the propagation if visual info from the endpoints of the “what and “where” pathways back to the primary visual cortex

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65
Q

Bottom up influences

A

The feedforward influence of the external environment on the resulting perceptual experience

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66
Q

Top down influences

A

The feedback influence of context and the individuals knowledge, expectations, and high-level goals on perceptual experience

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67
Q

Automatic processes

A

Processes that run them self without requiring us to pay attention

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68
Q

Controlled processes

A

Processes we must pay attention to to execute

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69
Q

Automatic processes may also be called: (3)

A

Bottom-up,
Stimulus driven
Instinctual

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70
Q

Controlled processes may also be called:(3)

A

Top down
Goal directed
Voluntary

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71
Q

Visual agnosia

A

An inability to identify objects visually even though they can be identified using other senses

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72
Q

Perception

A

The processing of sensory info in such a way that it produces conscious experience and guides action in the world

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73
Q

Cornea

A

The outer tissue of the eye and the first layer that light passes through

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74
Q

Pupil

A

The space through which light passes, adjusted in size by iris, appears black

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75
Q

Iris

A

The tissue that surrounds the pupil and gives the distinct colour of the eye

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76
Q

Lens

A

Transparent tissue in the eye that refracts light and focuses it on the back of the eye

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77
Q

Retina

A

The tissue at the back of the eye that contains light receptors

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78
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Cells that transduce light energy into a neural signal

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79
Q

Fovea

A

The region of the retina where photoreceptors are most densely packed

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80
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

Area at the back of the brain that is primarily responsible for the basic processing of visual info

81
Q

Retinotopic

A

A principle of organization of the primary visual cortex, where info falling on adjacent areas of the retina is processed in adjacent areas in the cortex

82
Q

Achromatopsia

A

A visual deficit characterized by inability to perceive colour because of damage to the area of the brain the processes colour info

83
Q

Akinetopsia

A

Inability to perceive the motion of objects (motion blindness)

84
Q

Ventral “what” pathway

A

Stream of visual processing in the brain responsible for determining object shape, colour, and meaningful identity

85
Q

Dorsal “where” pathway

A

The stream of visual processing in the brain that is responsible for determining object location and motion, and guides action

86
Q

Feedforward sweep

A

The propagation of visual info from the primary visual cortex down the “what” and “where” pathways

87
Q

Re-entrant “feedback” connection

A

Connections between brain areas that allow the propagation of visual info from the endpoints of the “what” and “where” pathways back to the primary visual cortex

88
Q

Bottom up influences

A

The feedforward influence of the external environment on the resulting perceptual experience

89
Q

Top-down influences

A

The feedback influence of context and the individuals knowledge, expectations, and high-level goals on perceptual experience

90
Q

Fusiform face area

A

An area in the inferior temporal cortex that is responsible for the conscious recognition of faces

91
Q

Propagnosia

A

A selective deficit in the ability to consciously recognize faces as result of damage to FFA

92
Q

Percept

A

The visual experience of sensory info

93
Q

Parahippocampal place area (PPA)

A

An area in the ventral stream that is responsible for the conscious recognition of places

94
Q

Extrastraite body area (EBA)

A

An area in the ventral stream that is involved in processing non-facial body parts

95
Q

Pattern recognition

A

The ability to recognize an event as an instance of a particular category of event

96
Q

Memory trace

A

The trace that an experience leaves behind in memory

97
Q

Hoffding function

A

The process whereby an experience makes contact with a memory trace resulting in recognition

98
Q

Feature detection theory

A

Detecting patterns on the basis of their features or properties

99
Q

Pandemonium

A

A model of pattern recognition consisting of 3 levels:
Data,
Cognitive demons,
And decision demon

100
Q

Feature

A

A component or characteristic of a stimulus

101
Q

Cognitive demon

A

Feature detector in pandemonium model

102
Q

Contrast energy

A

The relative ease with which a stimulus can be distinguished from the background against which it’s displayed

103
Q

Squelching

A

The tendency of the nervous system to inhibit the processing of unclear features

104
Q

Recognition by components (RBC)

A

The theory that we recognize objects by breaking them down into their fundamental geometric shapes

105
Q

Geons

A

The set of 36 basic 3-D shapes from which all real-world objects can be constructed

106
Q

Dichroic listening

A

Participants are presented with two verbal messages simultaneously. typically one to each year, and are asked to focus on only one of them. they are then asked to respond to a series of questions about what they heard most often about the message played to the unattended ear

107
Q

Selective attention

A

Attending to relevant information and ignoring irrelevant information

108
Q

Cocktail party phenomenon

A

The ability to attend to one conversation with many other conversations are going on around you

109
Q

Shadowing task

A

A task in which the subject is exposed to two messages simultaneously and must repeat one of them

110
Q

Filter

A

A hypothetical mechanism that would admit certain messages and block others

111
Q

Selective looking

A

Occurs when we are exposed to two events simultaneously but attend it to only one of them

112
Q

Early selection

A

The hypothesis that attention prevents early perceptual processing of distractors

113
Q

Late selection

A

The hypothesis that we perceive both relevant and irrelevant stimuli and therefore must actively ignore the irrelevant stimuli in order to focus on the relevant ones

114
Q

Stroop task

A

A naming task in which colour names are printed in colours other than their colours their name

115
Q

Controlled versus automatic processes

A

Processes that demand attention if we are to carry them out properly versus processes that operate it without requiring us to pay attention to them

116
Q

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)

A

An area of the brain that may exert a top down by is that favours the selection of task relevant information

117
Q

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

A

An area of the brain that may detect conflicting response tendencies of the sort that the Stroop task elicits

118
Q

Spatial attention

A

The process of selecting visual information for conscious awareness in specific regions of space

119
Q

Spotlight metaphor

A

The idea that special attention is like a spotlight that we shine on an object when we selected for more complex and conscious processing

120
Q

Endogenous shifts

A

Voluntary movements of attention

121
Q

Exogenous shifts

A

Involuntary movement of attention triggered by external stimuli

122
Q

Attention capture

A

The diversion of attention by a stimulus so powerful that it compels us to notice even when our attention is focussed on something else

123
Q

Peripheral cueing paradigm

A

A test in which a light (i.e. the cue) flashes in the periphery and is followed by a target either in the same (ceud) location or a different (uncued) one

124
Q

Catch trials

A

Trials of a detection task in which a target is not presented (to see if a participant is paying attention)

125
Q

Cueing effect

A

Faster responses in cued compared to uncued trials in the cueing task

126
Q

Stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA)

A

The time difference between the onset of one stimulus and the onset of a subsequent stimulus

127
Q

Inhibition of return (IOR)

A

Slower responses to cued then uncued trails in the queueing paradigm

128
Q

Central cueing paradigm

A

An experimental method in which central cues (e.g. arrow) points to a location in which the target might subsequently appear

129
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

Failure to attend to events that we might be expected to notice

130
Q

Flanker task

A

An experiment in which participants may be influenced by an irrelevant stimulus beside the target

131
Q

Domain specific modules

A

The hypothesis that parts of the brain may be specialized for particular tasks such as recognizing faces

132
Q

Capacity model

A

The hypothesis that attention is like a power supply that can support only a limited amount of attentional activity

133
Q

Structural limits

A

The hypothesis that attentional tasks interfere with one another to the extent that they involve similar activities

134
Q

Central bottleneck

A

The hypothesis that there is only one path along which information can travel, and it is so narrow that the most they can handle it any one time is the information relevant to one task

135
Q

Divided attention

A

The ability to attend to more than one thing at a time

136
Q

Mind wandering

A

A shift of mental resources away from the task at hand and towards internal thoughts

137
Q

Sustained attention to response task (SART)

A

A continuous response task in which digits are sequentially presented on a computer screen and participants are asked to press a button in response to all of them except the infrequent digit

138
Q

Commission error

A

Failure to withhold a response to the infrequent digit in the SART

139
Q

Default network

A

A set of brain areas that are active when an individual does not have a specific task to do and is absorbed in internal thought

140
Q

Attentional blink (AB)

A

Failure to notice the second of two stimuli when presented within 550 milliseconds of each other

141
Q

Action slips

A

The kind of behavioural error that occurs often in everyday life

142
Q

Parallel mental activity

A

Thinking about something other than the task at hand

143
Q

Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP)

A

The presentation of a series of stimuli in quick succession

144
Q

Set

A

A temporary, top down organization in the brain that facilitates some responses while inhibiting others in order to achieve a certain goal; also referred to as a “mental set“

145
Q

Task switching

A

Changing from working on one task to working on another; usually studied in situations in which the switch is involuntary

146
Q

Switch cost

A

The finding that performance declines immediately on switching tasks

147
Q

Sustained attention

A

The act of maintaining attention focussed on a single task for a prolonged period of time

148
Q

Vigilance

A

Sustained attention as an externally imposed requirement

149
Q

prototypical

A

representative of a pattern or category

150
Q

template matching theory

A

the hypothesis that the process of pattern recognition relies on the use of templates or prototypes

151
Q

multiple trace memory model

A

traces of each individual experience are recorded in memory. no matter how often a particular kind of event is experienced, a memory will be traced ofthe individual event is recorded everytime

152
Q

probe

A

a “snapshot” of info in primary memory that can activate memory traces in secondary memory.

153
Q

echo

A

when a probe goes out from primary to secondary memory, memory traces are activated to the extent that they are similar to the probe. the activated memory traces are said to return an “echo”

154
Q

context effects

A

the change in perception of a visual component of a scene based on the surrounding info in the scene and the observers prior knowledge

155
Q

moon illusion

A

the tendency for the moon to appear different in size depending on whether its near the horizon or high in the night sky

156
Q

holistic

A

focusing on the entire configuration of an object

157
Q

atomistic

A

focusing on the components of objects

158
Q

grouping

A

the combination of individual components to form a percept of a whole object

159
Q

orgonizational principles

A

the rules that govern the perception of whole objects or events from a collection of individual components or features

160
Q

principal of experience

A

visual components are grouped together based on the prior experience and knowledge of the observer

161
Q

principal of similarity

A

visual features that have a high degree of visual similarity are combined

162
Q

principal of proximity

A

visual components that are close to one another are grouped to form a whole

163
Q

principal of symmetry

A

symetrical lines are perceived as going together

164
Q

principal of parallelism

A

lines that are parallel or simular in orientation are perceived as going together

165
Q

figure ground segmentation (segregation)

A

the separation of a scene so that one componant becomes the object and the other componants become background.

166
Q

denotivity

A

the degree to which an object is meaningful and familiar to an individual observer

167
Q

jumbled word effects

A

the ability to read wdors in seentnces evne wnhe smoe of the ltters rea mexid up

168
Q

word superiority effect

A

its easier to identify a letter if it appears in a word than if it appears alone

169
Q

empirical theory of colour vision

A

the theory that colour perception is influenced by prior experience with the way different illuminations affect colout (blue black/ gold white dress)

170
Q

optic ataxia

A

a condition characterized by a deficit in ability to successfully reach for objects, especially when they are presented in the periphery vision, with unimpaired abiity to identify them

171
Q

theory of ecological optics

A

the propostition that perception results from direct contact of the sensory organs with stimulus energy emanating from the environment and that an important goal of perception is action

172
Q

ambient optical array (AOA)

A

all the visual info that is present at a particular point of view

173
Q

transformation

A

Gibsons (1966) term for the chages in the optical info hitting the eye that occurs as the observer moves through the environment

174
Q

optical flow field

A

the continually changing (transforming) pattern of info that results from the movement of either objects or the observer through the envinment

175
Q

gradient of texture density

A

incremental changes in the pattern on a surface, which provide info about the slant of the surface

176
Q

topological breakage

A

the discontinuity created by the intersection of two textures

177
Q

intentional blinding effect

A

events that take place after one has taken some action are perceived as occuring sooner than they actually did

178
Q

principal of common movement

A

visual features that move simultaniously and follow the same path are perceived to form a whole entity

179
Q

modality appropriateness hypothesis

A

hypothesis that different senses are better at processing different stimuli, and therefor, different sensory modalities dominate at different times, depending on the circumstace

180
Q

visual prepotency effect

A

the hypothesis that the visual system dominates other senses when it comes to perceptual processing

181
Q

McGurk effect

A

the auditory experience of the syllable “da” when seeing a mouth silently saying “ga” while hearing a voice say “ba”

182
Q

Vigilance decrement

A

The decline in performance overtime in vigilance task

183
Q

Overload view

A

The view that performance on vigilance tasks declines over time because such tasks are so demanding

184
Q

Resource depletion account

A

A version of the overload view according to which performance declines over time as attentional resources become depleted

185
Q

Under load view

A

The view that performance on vigilance tasks declines over time because such tasks are not stimulating enough to hold a persons attention

186
Q

Embodied

A

Existing within a body; the term reflects the general view that cognition depends not only on the mind but also on the physical constraints of the body in which the mind exists

187
Q

Overt attention

A

Attending to something with eye-movement

188
Q

Covert attention

A

Attending to something without eye movement

189
Q

Sequential attention hypothesis

A

The hypothesis about the relationship between overt and covert attention that posits a tight relationship between the two. Whereby covert attention shifted first and overt eye movement follows

190
Q

Saccades

A

The rapid, jerky movements made as the eye scans an image

191
Q

Fixation

A

Holding the eye relatively still in order to maintain an image of the fovea

192
Q

Nystagmus

A

Small but continuous eye movements during fixation

193
Q

Regressions

A

Right to left movements of the eyes during reading, directing them to previously read text

194
Q

Moving window technique

A

A method of determining how much visual info can be taken in during fix station in which the reader is prevented from seeing info beyond a certain distance from the current fixation

195
Q

Entry points

A

The locations to which we direct our eyes before starting to read a section in a piece of complex material such as a newspaper

196
Q

Smooth pursuit movements

A

Movements of the eye that,because they are not jerky enable the viewer to maintain fix station on a moving object

197
Q

Task related knowledge

A

An observer’s knowledge of the goals and the task at hand as it guides the eyes during a visual task

198
Q

Quiet eye

A

Sustained and steady I gaze prior to an action or behaviour (sport players example)

199
Q

Location suppression hypothesis

A

A two stage explanation for the quiet I phenomenon; in the preparation stage, the quiet eye maximizes info about the target object; then, during the location stage, vision is suppressed to optimize execution of an action or behavior

Cognitive processes (1 decks)

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