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Bio 112 > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Common to all living things

A

1) cells
2) biological molecules: carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid
3) metabolism
4) homeostasis
5) respond to stimuli
6) exchange with environment

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2
Q

biological phenomena that is physical

A

gravity, friction, pressure

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3
Q

biological phenomena that is chemical

A

diffusion, osmosis, digestion

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4
Q

why is stomach considered an organ and not a tissue? describe one aspect of stomach anatomy, describe one aspect of stomach physiology

A

an organ is made up of two or more tissues and the stomach has more than one tissue, therefore it is an organ.
stomach anatomy: cardia, connected to the esophagus
stomach physiology: relaxation and contraction of the stomach muscles that help mix up and break down food for digestion.

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5
Q

levels of organization for the human body. where is dividing line between living and nonliving?

A

chemical - cellular - tissue - organ - organ system - organismal level. the line is between chemical and cellular

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6
Q

general characteristics of model organisms

A

used for research to understand natural world

easy to house, breed, handle, sacrifice

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7
Q

what % of lean adult body is made up of water?

A

60-70%

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8
Q

what are the substances that commonly occur in body fluids?

A

Mostly water, but vary in composition, different concentration of solutes: Na+, glucose, O2, albumin, etc.

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9
Q

saliva is a body fluid. is it an intracellular or extracellular fluid? what is the solvent? what are some solutes?

A

extracellular.
solvents: 98% water
solute: also contains important solutes such as electrolytes, mucus, and enzymes.

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10
Q

what are the body’s 3 major fluid compartments?

A

Plasma (ECF) - 7%
Interstitial (ECF) - 26%
Intracellular (ICF) - 67%

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11
Q

what compartment does most body fluid occur?

A

intracellular - 67%

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12
Q

what barrier separates plasma from interstitial fluid?

A

blood vessel wall

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13
Q

What is the barrier that separates interstitial fluid from intracellular fluid?

A

plasma membrane

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14
Q

describe homeostasis and map out a home heating system, labeling the main components of a negative feedback system

A

Homeostasis is maintaining a relatively stable internal environment, despite fluctuations in external environment
Home heating system:
Receptor: thermometer in thermostat is monitoring the temperature in environment. Detects a drop in temperature and sends a message to the thermostat: Afferent pathway
Control center: thermostat has a set point of 20 degrees. Receives the message that temperature is below this and decides to turn on heat.
Effector: heater turned on, temperature in room begins to increase.

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15
Q

What is a receptor?

A

cell or set of cells that are monitoring a variable. Sends information to

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16
Q

Control Center

A

has established set point, and knows what conditions should be. Control center receives the information, combines info, analyzes and determines course of action.

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17
Q

Effector

A

able to actually change the physiological variable. receives information from CC, and when it engages it can change the physiological variable

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18
Q

Map out the body’s heating or cooling system and its feedback system

A

Receptors: thermoreceptors in skin and hypothalamus detect a drop in body temperature. sends information to control center
Control center: neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus and thyrotropes in pituitary gland receive messages from the receptors that there is a drop in BT. sends nerve impulses to skeletal muscles to start shivering
Effectors: skeletal muscles contract, body shivers and warms up

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19
Q

negative feedback system vs. positive feedback system

A

negative feedback: works to reverse the change

positive feedback: reinforces the change

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20
Q

example of positive feedback system

A

childbirth:
Contractions of wall of uterus force the baby’s head or body into the cervix → stretches cervix → receptors: stretch-sensitive cells in cervix send nerve impulses → control center: brain interprets input and releases oxytocin → effectors: muscles in wall of uterus contract more forcefully → baby’s body stretches cervix more → interruption of cycle, birth of baby decreases stretching, thus breaking the positive feedback cycle.

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21
Q

Example of disease and how

A

diabetes is an example of a disruption to homeostasis
set point: normal blood glucose level
eat breakfast and blood sugar goes up, receptors: beta cells in pancreas monitor and detect blood sugar has gone up. When they detect this, they secrete insulin into your blood. In response to insulin, cells start taking in glucose. As glucose moves into cells, it comes into blood and blood glucose goes down.
In diabetes, the body is unable to adequately regulate the amount of glucose in blood.

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22
Q

what is acclimatization?

A

physiological changes following repeated exposure to a particular environmental circumstance
Ex: people living at a higher altitude have higher density of hematocrits

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23
Q

what is circadian rhythm?

A

internal body clock

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24
Q

What four elements make up the 96% of the body and what are their symbols?

A

C Carbon
H Hydrogen
O Oxygen
N Nitrogen

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25
What is the basic structure of an atom? Where do each of the following occur and what charge does each carry?
Atoms all have atomic nucleus, which is made up of protons (+) and neutrons (neutral) Electrons occur outside of the nucleus and are negative.
26
What is the defining characteristic of any given type of atom?
how many protons are in its nucleus
27
A particular atom of chlorine (Cl) contains 17 protons, 18 neutrons, and 18 electrons. What is its atomic number? Does the atom carry a charge, overall (is it an ion)? If so, is it a cation or an anion?
atomic number = 17 | Since it has “gained” an electron, it makes it a negative charge, which is anion
28
Potassium’s atomic number is 19. How many electrons are present in a potassium ion that carries a single positive charge (K+)?
18
29
cation vs. anion
``` cation = + becomes positive by gaining electrons anion = - becomes negative by losing electrons ```
30
polar covalent bond vs. non-polar covalent bond
polar: electrons are shared unequally between two atoms. have opposite charges at either end. This gives rise to one end of the bond that is slightly negative and the other end slightly positive. non polar: electrons are shared equally between two atoms. This gives rise to an even distribution across the board.
31
What are the weak forces of attraction between group of neighboring water molecules?
hydrogen bonds
32
In one molecule of water, what is the chemical bond connecting hydrogen and oxygen?
polar covalent bond
33
Olive oil consists mostly of triglycerides. What happens when olive oil is added to water? Why?
The polar attraction of water molecules squeezes the non polar molecules out of the water phase and oil floats to the top
34
What is the percent (%) concentration of a solution in which 5 grams of glucose were added to water, to make a total volume of 150mL?
``` percentage = mass of solute/volume of soltion 5/150 = .03% ```
35
What is the molar (M) concentration of a solution in which 2 moles of glucose have been dissolved in 2.5 liters of water?
2/2.5 = .08
36
Bases have what ions and acids have what ions?
All bases have OH- ions while acids have H+ ions. | Adding NaOH to a solution would cause the pH to increase ----> base
37
Blood PH is?
7.35-7.45, slightly alkaline
38
What do the laws of conservation and mass state?
Energy can neither be created or destroyed. All of the energy present propane's reactants, can also be accounted for in the products. It’s either given off or liberated by the reaction, or its stored in the products and the reactions. Mass is conserved, energy is conserved. Biology has to follow these laws.
39
monomer subunit of a protein is?
amino acid
40
monomer subunit of glycogen is? | polymer subunit is?
monosaccharide | polysaccharide
41
4 classes of biological molecules are?
carbs lipds proteins nucleic acid
42
hydrophilic and examples
water loving | Na+, glucose
43
hydrophobic and examples
water fearing | lipids, triglycerides
44
amphipathic and examples
loving both | phospholipds, transmembrane proteins
45
solution =
solvent + solutes
46
body fluids =
water + solutes
47
what is the function of solute concentration?
it is a major factor that drives movement of water and solutes between compartments
48
examples of carbs
glucose, fructose, galactose (monosaccharides) sucrose (disaccharide) glycogen, starch (polysaccharide)
49
sucrose is?
a disaccharide. composed of one molecule of fructose and one molecule of glucose
50
examples of lipids
fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipds, steroid hormones, cholesterol
51
what's a triglyceride?
fat and oils, composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails.
52
how many different amino acids do cells use to build proteins?
20
53
what does it mean to say intramolecular forces within a polypeptide chain?
intramolecular forces (forces within one molecule) that help fold a polypeptide into a 3 dimensional shape.
54
What does conformational change mean?
Many proteins undergo a conformational change (change in overall shape) in order to execute its function/job, however it does return to its original shape. For example, a glucose carrier protein will change shape once a glucose attaches to it, then the protein will transport glucose into the cell (its job) and then once the job is complete, the glucose carrier protein will return back to its original shape
55
People with sickle-cell disease manufacture an alternate form of the protein hemoglobin. How does the sequence of amino acids in a protein relate to (or influence) that protein’s shape and chemical properties?
a mutation in the amino acid sequence causes the protein to fold inaccurately, therefore it cannot perform its proper function
56
what are enzymes and their function?
Enzymes are proteins that control the speed of chemical reactions in your body. Without enzymes, these reactions would take place too slowly to keep you alive.
57
what happens to a protein when it denatures? what causes denaturing?
Denatured means when proteins lose its proper shape. When a protein is denatured, it can no longer do its job. Proteins denature when something alters the interactions between neighboring amino acids: Temperature and PH can denature a protein. Once denatured, protein may or may not be able to renature, once the proper temperature or pH is reestablished.
58
ATP → ADP + Pi
ATP is in tact, full of energy. Encounters an enzyme called ATPase and it cuts off that 3rd phosphate group. Energy is released and the cell uses that energy to do something. Then we are left with ADP and we have to recycle it back into ATP.
59
ADP + Pi → ATP
Energy requiring reaction. Metabolism. Energy is used to tack back on the phosphate and then we are back to a fully functioning ATP.
60
Provide the general definition of metabolism. What are the two halves of metabolism? Which types of molecules can be catabolized during cellular respiration?
Metabolism: sum of all chemical reactions in the body. All cells need a constant input of energy, which they use to maintain their molecules and organelles, to build new molecules, and to divide. Catabolic: taking larger molecules to smaller. Fuel spent to make ATP Anabolic: taking smaller molecules and building larger. Molecules that can be catabolized. Fuel molecules can be catabolized during cell respiration: lipids, protein, carbs
61
Cytoskeleton is made up of what type of biological molecule?
protein fibers: - Actin - Microtubules - Intermediate filaments
62
What are 3 functions of the cytoskeleton?
- Cell shape - Cell movement: Transport of materials within the cell - Connection to extracellular materials via the plasma membrane
63
What are 3 cell vesicles and their function/purpose?
- Lysosomes: break down bacteria and debris from dead cells - Peroxisomes: removes toxic ingested products - removes hydrogen from organic molecules like lipids, alcohol, and potentially toxic ingested substances - Secretory vesicles: help cells secrete - Transport vesicles: move things around the cell
64
Why do certain cell types have far more mitochondria than others?
- More present in cells that utilize large amounts of energy - Muscle cells have a lot of mitochondria (lots of energy needed for muscle contraction)
65
Why do certain cell types have far more rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes than others?
Amount that a particular cell will have depends on the cell’s function. Is it their job to manufacture a protein? E.g. beta cells in pancreas, job is to manufacture insulin (a hormone). Insulin is a small protein. The beta cells will have lots of RER because its their whole job to manufacture a protein.
66
Describe the process of protein synthesis
Transcription: happens in the nucleus. Targeted region of DNA, the "gene" that codes for the protein of interest, unwinds. Brand new form of RNA is formed in the nucleus, MRNA. MRNA leaves the nucleus through a nuclear pore in the nuclear envelope, enters the cytosol. Translation: In the cytosol, MRNA encounters a ribosome, several ribosomes attach to the MRNA, and MRNA threads through each ribosome. Ribosome is responsible for attaching to the next amino acid in the sequence and forming the polypeptide chain. Ribosome and MRNA perform translation. Ribosome is reading the genetic code from MRNA (3 letter code) that specifies which amino acid to add. Result of translation = polypeptide chain. Protein: polypeptide chain folds in intricate and specific ways, its 3 dimensional shape determines what kind of protein.
67
What is the central dogma theory?
DNA → RNA → protein (flow of information)
68
What is a gene?
segment of DNA that codes for a particular sequence of RNA
69
What is a chromosome?
a tightly coiled chunk of DNA
70
What is transcription?
process of transferring genetic information from DNA to RNA in the nucleus
71
What is translation?
process that uses the coded information in RNA to assemble a protein in the cytoplasm
72
How can a mutation in a gene lead to the formation of a protein that has sub optimal 3 dimensional shape?
A genetic mutation could change the primary structure (sequence of amino acids) and thus lead to a synthesis of a misfolded, malfunctioning protein. Genetic mutations occur when DNA is not faithfully copied. If the mutated gene undergoes transcription followed by translation, it could lead to a mistake in the amino acid sequence.
73
In the plasma membrane, which molecules are amphipathic?
transmembrane proteins, carrier proteins, etc.
74
what are 3 functions of the plasma membrane?
- Maintains chemical composition of the cytosol by selectively allowing materials to enter/exit the cell - Bears receptors that allow the cell to detect and respond to extracellular signaling molecules. - Bears cell-identity markers, important for cell-cell interactions: indicates what type of cell it is and who it belongs to.
75
Identify at least three functions/roles/purposes of plasma membrane proteins
- Allow specific materials to enter/leave the cell: ion channels, transporters, pumps - Act as receptors to which extracellular molecules bind - Form structural connections to neighboring cells or extracellular material
76
What are glycoproteins and glycolipids?
hybrid molectules Glycoproteins: hybrid molecules. Part carbohydrate, part protein Glycolipids: part carbohydrate, part lipid
77
ion channels vs. transporters?
Gated ion channels: gate is either open or closed due to conformational change. When open, ions are permitted to cross the plasma membrane by facilitated diffusion (from high to low). Ion channels are specific, meaning they typically allow only one type of ion to pass through. This happens more quickly. Carrier proteins/ transporters: bind to select substance, change shape, deliver substance to opposite side of membrane. Movement of large, polar or hydrophilic molecules. Undergoes a conformational change when it delivers from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. Both specific, but channels are quicker. Carriers aren’t gated but they do change shape to deliver materials.
78
What types of molecules can pass through the PM by simple diffusion?
``` Oxygen O2 Carbon Dioxide CO2 Small fatty acids Steroid hormones Ethanol ```
79
What types of materials need a membrane protein in order to pass through the bilayer?
Sodium ions, potassium ions, large proteins, sugar
80
What role do concentration gradients play in determining if a substance will enter or leave the cell? Which transport mechanisms rely on a concentration gradient?
Concentration gradient exists when there is a higher concentration of a substance on one side of the plasma membrane than on the other. All passive transport mechanisms depend on a concentration gradient. If substance is physically able to pass through the membrane, they will diffuse from the area of high concentration toward area of low concentration. Where the solutes go, water will flow!
81
Which transport mechanisms are passive? Which are active?
Passive transports do not require the cell to spend its own energy: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion (gated ion channels and transporters) and osmosis Active transports requires the cell to spend its own energy: primary active transport, secondary active transport, transport in vesicles: endocytosis & exocytosis
82
How do water molecules traverse lipid bilayer?
Through monetary gaps between neighboring phospholipds and/or through membrane proteins called aquaporins = water channels
83
hypotonic
lower concentration of solutes than the cytosol: cells will swell and possibly burst; water will enter the cell by osmosis
84
isotonic
equal concentration of solutes: remains the same; there is no net movement of water (equilibrium); 300 mOsm/L nonpenetrating solutes
85
hypertonic
higher concentration of solutes than the cytosol: cells will shrink; water will leave the cell by osmosis; greater than 300 mOsm/L of nonpenetrating solutes
86
isoosmotic
solution containing 300 mOsm/L of solutes
87
hyperosmotic
solution containing greater than 300 mOsm/L of solutes
88
hypoosmotic
solution containing less than 300 mOsm/L of solutes
89
Describe the process of primary active transport.
Primary active transport involves “pumps.” These pumps are transmembrane proteins that are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. They use ATP to drive a substance against its concentration gradient. From an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. It’s easier to think of this as moving something uphill -- spends a lot of energy to do so.
90
For each ATP, pump what in and what out?
For each ATP, pump 3 NA+ out and 2 K+ in.
91
What is a sodium-potassium pump?
Primary active transport. Transmembrane protein that moves sodium and potassium in opposite directions. Part of the protein is an enzyme that cleaves ATP into ADP, releasing energy in the process.
92
secondary active transport?
movement of an ion down its electrochemical gradient is coupled to the transport of another molecule
93
secondary active transport?
movement of an ion down its electrochemical gradient is coupled to the transport of another molecule -- have two binding sites. One for an ion and one for a molecule.
94
Cotransporter/symporter
moves two substances in the same direction at the same time. Only way it can move them is if there is a concentration gradient for one of them. Only can enter if it brings a specific molecule in with it. Uses existing gradient to do so.
95
Antiporters/countertransporters
Move two different substances in opposite directions but it also relies on a concentration gradient. Has to reject a molecule before the other one can enter.
96
Why is adequate ATP required for secondary active transport?
Secondary transport relies on a pre-existing concentration gradient that was established by a pump, primary active transport.
97
membrane potential
Cells have electrical gradients. Whenever there is a charge difference across the plasma membrane, we say that a membrane potential exists. It is not neutral so we say that a membrane potential exists.
98
Type of biological molecules present in cell junctions?
Plasma membrane proteins. Sugar, amino acids, nucleotides
99
Gap junctions
functions as a passageway that connected the cytosol of adjacent cells
100
Tight junctions
connection of two adjacent cell membranes
101
exocytosis
membrane bound vessicles in cytoplasm fuse with the PM and release contents to the outside of the cell
102
endocytosis
Captures a substance and brings material into the cell.
103
simple diffusion vs. facilitated diffusion
Simple: net flux of a molecule across a plasma membrane, proceeds from higher to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. In facilitated, requires a transporter mechanism.
104
Why can't ions pass through PM by simple diffusion?
because ions are charged and charged ions can't get through a phospholipid bilayer
105
Describe steps for primary active transport
1) 3 sodium ions and one ATP bind to pump. ATP releases energy into cell and splits into ADP and Pi. 2) ADP is released, pump changes shape and sodium ions leave 3) potassium ions bind to pump, pump loses Pi and changes shape, Ka+ into cell and process starts again.
106
Outside cell there is a higher concentration of?
CI and Na
107
Inside cell there is a higher concentration of?
Ka, phosphate ions and protein anions
108
At -55mV, what happens?
Depolarization, sodium ion channels open into cell
109
At +30mv, what happens?
Repolarization, potassium channels open, ions flow out of cell
110
Function of cell to cell communication
1) homeostasis 2) differentiation of stem cells into new tissue cells 3) tissue maintenance and repair
111
How does cells turn off communication?
- remove receptors from PM - decline in EC concentration of signaling molecule: degradation (cut off), re-uptake (other cells take them in), diffusion

Bio 112 (2 decks)

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