Test #1

Question 1

Scientific method

Answer 1

Empiricism: knowledge based on structured/systematic observation 
Components:
•Hypothesis (based on a theory, conduct research for reason you have this hypothesis)
•Control and experimental conditions 
•Materials/methodology 
•Observation 
•Data collection and interpretation 
•Limitations

Question 2

Characteristics of (psychological) science

Answer 2

Universalism: commonly agreed upon rules/methods for structuring observations
Communality: sharing our methods/results (ability for replication and meta analyses)
Disinterestedness: seeking truth > pride
Scepticism: evaluation/peer review (done prior to publication)

Question 3

Alternative ways of knowing (easy, common, risky)

Answer 3

1) Authority: believing what a higher position tells you
2) Intuition: anecdotal evidence to draw general conclusions, leaving room for bias and inaccuracy
•Illusory correlation: focusing on two events that stand out and occur at the same time (ex: finding love once you stop looking)
Solution: critical thinking (evaluating the truth before accepting/rejecting it)

Question 4

Lollipop study

Answer 4

Showed how the structured observation of listening and recalling vs multitasking then recalling led to different results:
•Before multitasking: higher number of agrees and lower number of strongly disagrees
•After multitasking: lower number of agrees and higher number of strongly disagrees

Question 5

Types of research

Answer 5

1) Pseudoscience: uses scientific terms to make claims without scientific evidence
2) Basic research: describe, explain, predict, and determine cause if behaviour (goes of scientific research)
•Develop and test aspects of theories regarding cognition, emotion, motivation, learning, social behaviour, etc.
3) Applied research: applying accumulated knowledge to solve these problems/find potential solutions
•Ex: program evaluation (tests the efficacy of social reforms that occur in government)

Question 6

Theory

Answer 6

Theory: explanation or interpretation of the relations among constructs
Serves two functions:
1) Synthesizing function: organize and explain observations
2) Heuristic function: generate predictions (hypotheses)
Construct: conceptual or hypothetical variable that can’t be directly observed

Question 7

Hypothesis vs prediction

Answer 7

Hypothesis: tentative statement that something might be true
Prediction: takes a hypothesis and operationally defines the variables (clue: future tense)
•If the prediction is supported, the hypothesis is too
Data: supports or fails to support the hypothesis

Question 8

Parsimony

Answer 8

Simpler theories are better than more complex theories that can explain the same phenomenon
Ex: interpersonal process model of intimacy
•Self-disclosure + partner disclosure + partner responsiveness = intimacy
•Parsimonious because it accounts for all types of intimacy while omitting non crucial variables (personality)

Question 9

Parsimony: behaviouralism vs cognitivism

Answer 9

Behaviouralism: observable stimulus –> observable response
Cognitivism: observable stimulus –> (integrated thought) –> observable response
Behaviouralism more parsimonious because there are fewer links in the causal chain

Question 10

What makes a hypothesis testable

Answer 10

1. falsifiability: when an idea is tested, it can be proven false by data
2. Operationalism (operational definitions): observable indicator of each variable, used for the purpose of a particular study
   •Enable reliable measurement/manipulation of each variable in the hypothesis
   •Pragmatic approach

Question 11

Variables

Answer 11

Def: any event, situation, behaviour, or individual characteristic that can take more than one value (it varies)
Ex: wine tasting picture has different colours, sizes

Question 12

Continuous participant vs categorical variables

Answer 12

Continous: the amount of wine in the glass (mm)
Categorical: the colour (red, gold, white)

Question 13

Correlation designs

Answer 13

Measurement of two or more variables (no manipulation)
•Ex: people who expertise more have a higher level of happiness
•Positive or negative correlation (positive or negative 1 - cannot be outside of that)
•Can’t make causal claims because we don’t know what causes what (direction) and third party variables

Question 14

Operational definitions

Answer 14

Def: consistent way to measure or manipulate a variable by translating a construct into a more observable variable
•Hypothesis to prediction

Important to consider three general variable categories when creating an operational definition
1) participant variable:
• characteristics people bring to the study (can be measured, continuous or categorical)
*Ex: psychological entitlement, cultural backgorund
2) situational variable: characteristics of the situation/environment
•Can be measured or manipulated, typically categorical
*Ex: the number of people around
3)response variable: the responsiveness/behaviours of individuals
*Ex: performance on a cognitive task, reaction time

Question 15

When to make a causal claim (3 criteria for internal validity)

Answer 15

1) covariation of cause and effect: when the cause is present the effect occurs, and wen the cause is not present, the effect does not occur
2) temporal precedence: there is an order (cause before effect)
3) eliminate plausible alternative explanations

Question 16

Internal validity

Answer 16

Def: the ability to infer that the IV causes changes in the DV
Ways to achieve this:
1) Experimental control: only IV changes across conditions with no cofounds
2) Random assignment to condition (or repeated measures design)

Question 17

Straightforward vs staged manipulations

Answer 17

Straightforward: operationally define the independent variable using instructions and stimulus presentations
•Ex: the person life recall and the priming experiment with psychological entitlement
Staged: elaborate situations involving actors/a cover story
•Ex: milgrams obedience experiment
•Used to try and create a psychological state (anger) or to simulate a real life situation

Question 18

Manipulation strength

Answer 18

Stronger manipulations have the potential for larger effects on the DV (the stronger the better
Manipulation check: ensures the IV has its intended effect
•Measured after the IV is manipulated, but doesn’t always have to be done
•Adv: if your manipulation is found ineffective in a pilot study, you can change it before the actual experiment, and is advantageous if the results show no effect

Question 19

Random assignment

Answer 19

Allows the researcher to balance out influence of many variables
•More effective as the number of participants increases
•Ex: psychological entitlement scores weren’t a third variable problem due to the random assignment

Question 20

Confound

Answer 20

Def: an annoying variable that co-varies along with the manipulation of the IV or measurement of the DV
•Ex: if all the entitled people were in one group

Question 21

Experimenter bias

Answer 21

A cognitive bias where the experimenter unintentionally influences the experiment to find the expected effect
•A threat to internal validity
•Subtle and unintentional
•Solution: double blind procedure, moving the experimenter away from the study, run everyone at the same time

Question 22

Demand characteristics

Answer 22

Any feature of an experiment that might inform participants of the studies purpose, influencing behaviour
•A threat to internal validity
•Ex: placebo effects, DV persistence
•Solution: single blind, filler tasks (irrelevant questions), deception, ask what they thought once the study has ended