Test #1 Flashcards
Generative Grammar
Represents a sentence’s syntactic properties in terms of ‘tree’ structures that are built by explicitly stated formal operations.
Universal Grammar (UG)
The inborn system of categories and principles that explains why human language has the particular properties that it does.
Core Grammar
Each language has its own core grammar that is assigned by UG because languages can set the available parameters in different ways.
Periphery
The rest of the language’s grammar - which may well cover the vast majority of its syntactic phenomena. Things not explained/managed by the core grammar.
Heads
The nucleus around which phrases are built
Specifiers
Elements which help make more precise the meaning of the head
Compliments
Elements whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head
The 3 claims of the X’ Schema
- Every phrase consists of a head that projects to an X’ level and an XP level.
- The head and its complement combine to form an X’ constituent.
- The specifier combines with the X’ constituent to form an XP, the so-called ‘maximal projection.’
The Head Parameter:
The head precedes/follows its complement.
head-initial (English) or head-final (Japanese)
Three types of Constituency test
- Movement
- Substitution
- Coordination
Movement
If a sequence of words can be moved as a unit, it is a constituent.
Substitution
If a sequence of words can be ‘replaced’ by an item that refers back to it, it is a constituent.
Coordination
If a sequence of words can be coordinated with a constituent, then it too is a constituent.
Complement
An element whose existence is somehow implied by the semantics of the head.
Adjunct
An element that provides optional information about properties of the head.
Hints for distinguishing Complements from Adjuncts
- Time phrases are always adjuncts
- AdvPs are adjuncts
- Direct objects and indirect objects are always complements
- Directional Pos headed by of, to, onto, into, and from are typically compliments.
- Pos headed by prepositions with a non-spatial or non-temporal meaning (talk about, speak of) are typically complements.
- Complements my be obligatory; adjuncts are always optional.
Subcategorization
A head is said to subcategorize, or select, its complement and are listed in its lexical entry.
i.e. to hit - _NP
to put - _ NP PP
to dash - _PP
The Projection Principle
Lexical requirements must be satisfied at all syntactic levels (DS, SS, and LF).
Functional Categories
Categories (Tense, Complementizer, Determiner) in the syntax trees that do not have lexical head but functional/grammatical ones.
Arose because categories, like INFL, should be subject to the X-bar schema just as lexical categories, like NP and VP, are. This avoid the need to non-binary branching.
Aspectual Auxiliaries
Treated as ‘defective’ Vs that take VP complements instead of being placed in the I node with modal auxiliaries.
T node
Contains TAM information, infinitival marker, and modal auxiliaries.
Modals were moved here because they are the tense bearing unit of a verb complex. So, makes sense.
CP
Contains the complementizers and provides a spot for questions word/order.
‘force’ of a sentence (statement vs question)
Lexical Categories
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and prepositions.
Rationale for Ds being considered heads
- They enter into agreement relationships (as verbs do) this book vs. these books
- In head-initial languages Ds combine with phrasal constituents to their right (as verbs do).
a [book about ancient history] - Ds differ in terms of whether they require a complement (as verbs also do). A/the require a NP but this/that do not.
The possession relation:
The possessor is a DP and the possess thing is an NP
Degree words
Occupy the SPEC of AP
SPEC Position
- Originally had a semantic characterization for making a more specific referent of the head
- Currently its a purely structural position reserved for XPs.
Theta Theory
Provides an inventory of thematic roles and general principles governing their assignments.
Major Thematic Roles
Agent: entity instigating action Patient/Theme: entity undergoing action Goal: end point for movement Source: starting point for the movement Location: the place where an event occurs
The Theta Criterion:
Every argument receives one and only one thematic role. Every thematic role must be assigned to one and only one argument.
Theta postion
The position to which the theta role is assigned.
Internal argument
Receives its role within the projection of the head. Objects receiving theme role from the verb.
External argument
Receives its role outside the projection of the head. Subjects receiving agent role from the T node.
The Uniformity of Theta Assignment Hypothesis (UTAH)
An element’s D-structure position determines its thematic role, and an element’s thematic role determines it’s D-structure position.
The VP-internal Subject Hypothesis
All roles except the agent role are assigned inside the projection of lexical head.
Advantages:
- VPs now get to take XPs in the spec position and assign all theta roles within the phrasal projection
- Explains those sentences that’s subjects stays in the SPEC position when blocked by an expletive subject.
- Offers a straightforward account for VSO word orders.
- Allows for VP ellipsis
- Floated (and dropped quantifiers) in English.
Merge
A basic structure building operation that brings together constituents, creating phrases that comply with the X-bar Schema.
Basically adding nodes within the tree structure.
Move
A basic structure building operation that operates on an already built tree structure, moving a constituent to a new position.
Basically, traces.
Trace
A phonetically empty copy of itself in the position from which it moved. Traces have no internal structure.
Xo Movement
Movement of a head to another head position via adjunction. Ex: Auxiliary movement from T to C
XP Movement
Movement of a phrasal category to an empty specifier position. Two types: A movement and A’ movement
A movement
Movement to a position in which an argument can occur in D-structure (essentially a subject or complement in traditional framework)
Ex. Unaccusative and Passivization
A’ movement
Movement to a position to which a that role is never assigned.
(Spec of CP)
Ex. Wh-questions and Relative clauses
