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test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the problem of defining deviance?

A

there are many approaches to defining deviance

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2
Q

objective approaches to deviance

A
  • focus on the act
  • we know it when we see it
  • there is some quality or characteristic which makes the act deviant
  • why do people engage in deviancy?
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3
Q

subjective approaches to deviance

A
  • focus on perceptions and reactions to deviance
  • deviance is not associated with a particular act, rather it is socially defined
  • there is no criteria, something is deviant because someone says it is
  • not concerned with why, but rather the perceptions of deviance and the reaction to deviance
  • why do we respond to deviance the way we do?
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4
Q

elements of objectivism

A
  1. statistical rarity
  2. harm
  3. social reaction
  4. normative violation
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5
Q

statistical rarity

A
  • something is deviant if it is rare
  • some behaviors are not rare, yet considered deviant (underage drinking)
  • some behaviors are rare, yet not considered deviant (making the Dean’s list, winning the lottery)
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6
Q

Harm

A
  • something is deviant if it causes physical, emotional, social, or ideological harm
  • perceptions of harm change over time (ex, marijuana)
  • sometimes, reactions to deviance cause more harm than the deviant act (criminalization of drug use)
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7
Q

societal reaction

A
  • something is deviant if society reacts negatively
  • some people’s reactions count more than others, esp affluent people, politicians
  • the stronger the reaction and the higher number reactions usually dictates the stronger the concept of deviancy
  • regardless of public perception, political parties may “do what they want” when they’re in power, for example, the abolition of the death penalty
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8
Q

normative violation

A
  • something is deviant if it violates a norm
  • what is deviant in one context is not always deviant in another context
  • differs from one culture to the next
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9
Q

3 categories of norms

A
  1. • Folkways – everyday, informal norms, customs, practices, expectations
  2. • Mores – violations to mores are considered a threat to the moral fabric of society
  3. • Laws – formalized expectations, codified, part of the public record
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10
Q

definition of prescriptive

A

things that we should do; wait for a green light before proceeding, arrive to work on time

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11
Q

definition of proscriptive

A

describe things we shouldn’t do; don’t steal, don’t cheat, don’t kill

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12
Q

Consensus Theory

A

Laws come from a broad general agreement that a law needs to be created, and the law needs to apply to everyone

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13
Q

Conflict Theory

A

law comes from the elites to protect and promote their interests; the poor, or homeless, have laws directed at them to protect the interests of the elite

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14
Q

Interactionist Theory

A

the elite are not the only ones afforded protection, but everyone has the ability to influence decision-makers and law makers to see things their way through lobbying efforts

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15
Q

what is Subjectivism?

A
  • dominant moral codes serve as the foundation for determining deviance
  • those in power are often seen as the ones capable and responsible for determining these moral codes
  • dominance must be defined/constructed, it does not just simply exist
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16
Q

subjectivism - where do codes come from?

A

Codes emerge from processes of social construction – something is deviant only because it has been defined as such
- definitions are context specific

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17
Q

subjectivism - Radical/strict vs. soft/contextual constructionism

A

radical/strict: nothing “just is”, everything is created. There is no such thing as objective reality
soft/contextual: believers think there is some degree of objective reality. There is variation when looking at a behavior over a course of time

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18
Q

4 levels of social construction

A
  1. Sociocultural – a culture’s values, beliefs, ideologies – Canada’s value of individual freedom, when another person impinges on your freedom or autonomy, this could be considered deviant…also applies to other values, beliefs, ideologies
  2. Institutional – includes government, legal systems, etc… laws against theft, assault, etc…
  3. Interactional – interactions with other people will influence how we see the world and make decisions
  4. Individual – our own identities, concepts of self, and ways of understanding our own existence
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19
Q

dichotomy - subjectivism vs. objectivism

A
  • polarized, extreme views
    • murder is ALWAYS wrong (objectivism, absolute moral order)
    • everything is constructed, you can’t generalize anything (subjectivism, constructionism)
  • breaking the dichotomy, blending both extremes
  • most people fall between these two extremes
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20
Q

who are moral entrepreneurs?

A

those who seek to define something or someone as deviant and dictate the appropriate response – the church, police, Greenpeace, politicians, Jane Fonda

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21
Q

what is the Social Typing Process?

A

the process by which a person, behaviour, or characteristic is deviantized

  • Description = a label of the deviance applied to a person or group of people: hippie, goth, pedophile, crazy, etc…
  • Evaluation = the judgement or assumptions – comes from the negative connotations derived from the label or category, people with mental illness (crazy) are seen as dangerous, unpredictable, needy, etc…
  • Prescription = the social control (sanctions) – this is the response to deviance. When people do what is expected, they receive positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a smile, a promotion, etc…. negative sanctions are received when a person does something unapproved
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22
Q

social control: formal

A

police, judges, teachers, boss, etc… agents functioning within a formal institution

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23
Q

social control: informal

A

family members, friends, acquaintances, strangers, etc…

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24
Q

social control: retroactive

A

dealing with something after the fact, imprisonment (though the deterrent value is not there)

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25
Q

social control: preventative

A

trying to prevent something from happening in the first place, a parent teaching right from wrong to his children, a youth center to keep kids of the street, community programs, etc…

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26
Q

social control: regulation of others

A

policing, using laws to shape behaviour

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27
Q

social control: regulation of self

A

internalized societal expectations, we don’t want to experience negative sanctions, self-preservation

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28
Q

Merton’s Anomie and Strain Theories

A

o Key concepts are institutionalized goals (culturally identified goals for “success”) and legitimate means (culturally approved ways of obtaining goals)
o Anomie results when the goals become more important than the means and strain results when there is a structural gap between the means

29
Q

Merton’s Anomie and Strain Theories: Modes of adaptation

A

 Conformity – those who follow the rules in pursuit of their goals
 Ritualism – reduced their goals to coincide with their means; continue to work hard and play by the rules, just with more realistic goals
 Innovation – those who want the benefits of working hard, without working hard (ex, drug dealer, pimp, gang member, etc…)
 Retreatism – reject goals and means; usually retreat or withdraw from society
 Rebels – have a new vision of what the world should look like; reject traditional goals and means (hippy subculture, those who fight for sustainable living today, etc…)
 Innovation and retreatism are most likely to be viewed as deviant

30
Q

Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunity Theory

A

The structure and organization of society results not only in differential access to legitimate opportunities but also differential access to illegitimate means

31
Q

Differential Opportunity Theory - 3 types of gangs

A

 Criminal gangs– impoverished youth will join gangs primarily to make money. The youth are introduced to the gang, taught the rules and expectations of the gang and will carry out the illegitimate
 Retreatist gangs – double failure: those who fail at legitimate pursuits and illegitimate pursuits
 Conflict gangs – those who attempt to gain power and control through gratuitous violence. A lack of legitimate and illegitimate opportunities and role models

32
Q

Agnew’s General Stain Theory

A

o Strain is produced by a variety of processes but strain alone is not sufficient to produce deviance; deviance is only produced when strain is accompanied by negative affect (negative emotions), which compounds how a person interprets and reacts to the strain
o Deviance is more likely if stain is unjust, severe, and unable to be controlled (i.e., bullying, someone who is really working hard but just cant seen to get ahead, etc…)
o Focuses on the internal mechanisms of moderation, problem solving, control, emotions
o More recently, Agnew has incorporated structural factors suggesting that deviance is more likely in certain locations within the social structure (e.g., low-income neighborhoods)

33
Q

Cohen’s Status Frustration Theory

A 
Key concept is the middle-class measuring rod – as this is most attainable by the lower-class; upper-class is not usually attainable, and outside mainstream society
	the standards against which we evaluate ourselves and others; emphasis on middle-class values – such as honesty, hard work, being polite, etc…
	lower-class boys, exposed to middle-class aspirations they can’t reasonably attain, experience status frustration – being polite might cause a boy to getting beat up by his peers
34
Q

Cohen’s Status Frustration Theory - mutual conversion and reaction formation

A

– mutual conversion is a social process among peer groups leading towards deviant behaviours; usually oppositional to middle-class society. Their new values are in stark contrast to societal norms. Through these new oppositional values, the youth can finally experience success. – Reaction formation involves a “really intense rejection” of middle-class values; through opposition, they can relieve some of the anxiety

35
Q

Functionalist theory criticisms based on logic

A

criticizms based on logic
• teleological – hasn’t actually explained the need for the family and socialization since there are other institutions which can socialize the child
• tautological – circular reasoning (ex, because we see families socializing children, one of the functions of the family is to socialize children). The last part of the argument simply restates the first part of the argument

36
Q

Functionalist theory criticisms based on ideology/politics

A 
criticisms based on ideology/politics
•	conservative bias – just about anything can be described as functional (benefitting society) in some way.  They’re not interested in changing the inequalities, perpetuating the status quo…keeping the system “as is”
•	androcentric bias – women have been ignored by the functional theories, sexist assumptions about deviance and its participants
•	assumes deviance is a lower-class phenomenon – this is not true of deviance, it transcends socio-economic constructs; poor people are more likely to get caught, not that they are more likely to commit deviance compared to those in middle or upper classes
37
Q

Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory

A

o Deviance is learned through the same process as conformity (differential association)
 Learning occurs in small intimate groups
 People learn both techniques and motives – the ways and reasons for committing deviant acts
 People are more likely to become deviant when they are exposed to more deviant than conformist messages – if a person is exposed to deviant messages more often than conformist messages, he is more likely to engage in deviant behaviour

38
Q

Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory: Interactions are influenced by…

A
  • Frequency – how often one is exposed to deviant messages
  • Duration – the length of time of the negative interactions
  • Priority - how early in life they occur, the more meaningful they will be
  • Intensity – does the person attach a high value or a low value to deviant interactions; this will create importance to the person
39
Q

Sykes and Matza’s Neutralization Theory

A

Deviance is a product of a learning process in group interactions but learned motives are especially important (techniques of neutralization)

40
Q

Sykes and Matza’s Neutralization Theory: 5 components

A

 Denial of responsibility – shifting the blame on to something or someone else
 Condemnation of condemners – offender feels a sense of unfairness and being picked on for something others have done and not been punished for – “how dare you judge me, your just as bad, if not worse”
 Appeal to higher loyalties – offender claims that rule of law has to be ignored because more important issues were at stake – there is a more important purpose; they admit doing something deviant, but it was for a good reason
 Denial of Injury – offender claims victim was not really hurt by the crime, often used to justify theft from companies, domestic violence, general violence (I barely touched her…)
 Denial of the victim – offender claims victim was in the wrong; for example, rape victims told they deserved it because they were dressed provocatively, etc…

41
Q

Social Learniing Theory: rewards, punishments, and imitation

A

The likelihood of future action is based on:
 Differential association – the way people develop beliefs and values through their association with others
 Imitation – people are more likely to imitate the behaviours of others, especially if it is repeated and rewarded; less likely when the behaviours of others are being punished or not rewarded
 Differential reinforcement – the experience of consequences as well as the anticipation of consequences; instrumental conditioning (think of Pavlov’s dog), and less likely to engage in behaviours that are not rewarded or where we are punished

42
Q

limitations of learning theories

A

o differential association theory has been criticized on methodological grounds and because of its “escape clause”
o neutralization theory, for failing to address normative contexts and also because of its reasoning and methodology – techniques are too varied across the spectrum of offending, cannot be context specific. The idea that people use neutralizations prior to engaging in the deviance, in real life however, these neutralizations are used after the offence has been committed, not before; they are actually justifications rather than neutralizations

43
Q

Social Control Theories

A
  • Hirshi’s Social Bonds Theory: Social Bonds Restrain Us

- Gottfriedson and Hirshi’s Self-control Theory: we restrain ourselves

44
Q

Learning Theories

A
  • Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory: Learning from Family and Friends
  • Sykes and Matza’s Neutralization Theory: Rationalizing Deviance
  • Social Learniing Theory: rewards, punishments, and imitation
45
Q

Functionalist Theories

A
  • Merton’s Anomie and Strain Theories: The American Dream Gone Awry
  • Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunity Theory: Access to the Illegitimate World
  • Agnew’s General Stain Theory: the Effects of Negative Emotions
  • Cohen’s Status Frustration Theory: The Middle Class Classroom
46
Q

Objective vs. Subjective Theories

A
  • Objective theories focus on acts

* Subjective focus on perceptions and reactions as well as the role of power (social construction and social typing)

47
Q

what are the two categories which subjective theories fall in to?

A
  1. interpretive
  2. critical
    subjective theories are more interested in the expectations which are broken rather than the acts themselves
48
Q

Interpretive Theories: 3 types

A
  1. Symbolic interactionism: communication creates understanding
  2. Labelling Theories
  3. The deviant career (Becker): Progressing through Deviance
49
Q

Symbolic Interactionism

A

We develop understanding and attribute meaning to the world around us and to ourselves on the basis of interactions we have had with other people in our lives
• Society is created by social interaction
• Such interaction occurs via the use of symbols
• Symbols may have different meanings in different concepts

50
Q

symbolic interactionism 2 - key concepts

A
  • Role-taking – what are other people’s perspectives?
  • Looking-glass self – what do others think of me?
  • Significant others – what would my parents say?
  • Generalized other – what would “people” say?
51
Q

Labeling Theories

A

If you call someone something long enough, they eventually become that thing – the self-fulfilling prophecy:

  • Tannenbaum (1938)
  • Lemert (1951)
  • Becker (1963)
  • Gottman (1959)
  • Stigmatization can result in positive consequence
52
Q

Tannenbaum (1938) - labeling theory

A

When an individual is caught at deviance, tagging occurs (a deviant label is attached); at first, this deviant label only apples to the act, but is soon generalized to the person (the dramatization of evil); the result is changes in identity and subsequent behaviour – while the label is initially attached to the behaviour, over time, the label is internalized by the perpetrator and affixed to the character of the perpetrator; the person becomes what he’s been labelled

53
Q

Lemert (1951) - labeling theory

A

Distinguished between primary deviance (occasional rule breaking) and secondary deviance (deviant lifestyle and identity); getting caught is what results in the transition – how a perp is dealt with after being caught for a deviant act, primary deviance is treated leniently, without labels to self or behaviour vs. a big deal being made about the deviance

54
Q

Becker (1963) - labeling theory

A

Once a person is labelled deviant, it becomes their master-status; a person with a deviant master status becomes an “outsider” resulting in changes to identity and lifestyle – they will become cast out from pro-social society, lose friends, cant find employment, over time, the conforming world rejects them and they find acceptance in the deviant world

55
Q

Gottman (1959) - labeling theory

A

Developed the dramaturgical approach based on the idea that we play particular roles; distinguishing between front-stage selves and back-stage selves – front-stage selves is how we present ourselves to the world; back-stage selves is who we are at home, when no one is looking

  • Impression management can be especially challenging when a person has been stigmatized as deviant and has a spoiled identity – identity is spoiled through labelling, impression management is especially challenging; all people see is the deviant label, the spoiled identity
  • Stigma can be discredited or discreditable – a well known stigma that is hard to shake, it has discredited the person vs. a member of a cult, someone who was incarcerated where it is easy to hide but if discovered could discredit the person
56
Q

Stigmatization - labeling theory

A
  • Disintegrated shaming vs. reintergrative shaming – the person is cast out permanently vs. temporary shaming of a person who needs to make amends or take responsibility, once the person has made such amends, he is welcomed back in to the group (reintegrative shaming is at the heart of restorative justice)
  • Tertiary deviance resists or challenges the deviant label – this is how individuals challenge the deviant label. People aren’t just passive victims of labelling. It is because of their efforts that morals, expectations, and laws are changed
57
Q

Becker, The Deviant Career - labeling theory

A

when applied to marijuana users:
1. entry phase - how did the person begin using? who introduced the person to marijuana?
2. management phase - is a person simply a recreational user, or is he deeply entrenched?
3 exit phase - to what extent is a person able to quit using

Career contingencies are the various turning points that influence the directions people take – if a drug user’s dealer is arrested, how does this impact the user? Maybe he becomes a dealer himself, maybe he quits using…etc….

58
Q

the deviant career typology

A

 Pure deviant – one who engages in deviance; perceived as, and responds to the label “deviant”
 Falsely accused deviant – perceptions affect the behaviour of those falsely accused…, eventually, the person is likely to take on deviant behaviours after being labelled
 Secret deviant – someone who engages in deviance but has not been caught, labels of deviance do not apply since the perp has not been caught

59
Q

Interpretive Theories - limitations

A
  1. the lack of attention to the social structure, in response, structural considerations have been integrated with an interpretive perspective
  2. Lemert’s labelling theory has been criticized for focusing primarily on adolescents and for failing to address the long-term effects of labelling, for looking only at those who have been formally lablelled and for not sufficiently addressing the speiccific processes involved. Does not explain why people engage in deviance to begin with, before they are labelled…the initial act of deviance…
  3. Many have argued these theories reflect processes rather than formal theories – the concepts cannot be operationalized or clearly defined and the propositions are not testable
60
Q

Conflict Theories: Rules Serve the Interests of the Powerful

A

 Social rules emerge out of conflict and serve the interests of society’s most powerful groups
 Members of powerful groups are less likely to break the rules because the rules were created on their behalf – those who offend the rules of the powerful group are considered deviant
 Members of powerless groups are more like to break the rules because:
• Alienation causes them to act out in rule breaking ways
• The social rules have defined the acts of the powerless as deviant
o In Modern democratic societies, powerful groups cannot simply impose their will on powerless groups; rather, they must convince the powerless that the social rules are legitimate

61
Q

Karl Marx - Conflict Theory

A

Karl Marx argued that the exploitation of the proletariat (working class) by the bourgeoisie (upper class, factory owners, rulers) creates a sense of alienation among the proletariat resulting in deviant behavior – the workers are at the mercy of the bourgeoisie, who exploit the workers for their own gain. Because of this exploitation and alienation, the proletariat are more prone to act out in deviant ways

62
Q

Karl Marx, branches of… - Conflict Theory

A

 Instrumental Marxists – social rules are created by the powerful to serve their own needs; a deviant label is a means to control the powerless
 Structural Marxists – social rules are created by the powerful to protect the capitalist system; a deviant label may be attached to anyone who threatens the capitalist system, regardless of power – anyone who threatens the machinery of capitalism can be charged with a deviant act and then labelled
 Pluralist Conflict Theory – emphasize multiple dimensions of inequality or power as opposed to just an economic dimension
 Cultural Conflict Theories – the dominant culture within a society imposes its norms on everyone despite the fact other cultures within society have varying norms – everyone who fails to comply risks being labelled, ex. Islamophobia…
 Group Conflict Theory – groups struggling for power with each group attempting to win the support of authorities

63
Q

Conflict theories - how are social rules legitimized?

A

as a way to control the powerless:
 Ideology (Marx) – ideas about the way things should be; the ideas are presented as “common-sense” by social institutions to indoctrinate the masses
 Hegemony (Gramsci) – dominance of the powerful over the powerless
 False consciousness (Frankfurt School) – how the powerless groups have been duped in to supporting ideologies, acts, behaviours which are not in their best interests (ex. - capitalism, trickle-down economics)

64
Q

Power-Reflexive Theories: Knowledge is Power - Conflict Theory

A

o Emphasize the interconnections between knowledge and power; multiple discourses exist but power dynamics determine which discourses become legitimized
o Foucault also discusses how the pervasiveness of regulatory mechanisms within a panoptical society result in self-surveillance (Jeremy Bentham - panopticon)

65
Q

Feminist Theories: Deviance is gendered - Conflict Theory

A

o Mainstream (“malestream”) sociological theories have been criticized for
 Ignoring women altogether
 Assuming that research on the male experience can be generalized to the female experience – the belief being, sociologists or whomever do not need to go out and study women because studying men is sufficient and data can be applied equally
 Treating women as the peripheral “other” that stands in contrast to the male normative standard – women are viewed as being “less-than” men

66
Q

Postmodern Theories: Questioning all knowledge - Conflict Theory

A

o Based broadly on the concept of rejection:
 Skeptical vs. affirmative
• Skeptical – truth is not possible, nothing has meaning, knowledge is not real, we cannot know anything about anything; not really helpful as a theory
• Affirmative – can generate knowledge, but is very limited to local, specific contexts

67
Q

Postmodern Theories: Questioning all knowledge - 4 elements

A
  1. Society being more commercial than industrial - about producing and consuming symbols and meaning, we are inundated by advertisements about what we need, who we are, and what a particular product says about us
  2. People being consumers rather than citizens – tend to be politically apathetic, fail to engage in civic duties while we pursue our own needs (individualism)
  3. The “end of the individual” – apparently, lol, we have lost sight of who we are as individuals; we are continuously pursuing an image which is constantly changing
  4. The erosion of any dominant moral codes by which deviance can be judged – anything goes, cannot judge others using a standard code or expectation
68
Q

Limitations of Critical Theories

A
  • Not terribly useful as a theory, but does ask useful questions which need asking
  • Some have argued these theories reflect processes, perspectives, or ideologies rather than formal theories; in response, theoretical integration has grown considerable
  • Conflict theories have been criticised for failing to recognize consensus that exists in society

Deviance (1 decks)

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