Test 1 Flashcards
What is critical thinking?
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Example sentence: Critical thinking is essential for making informed decisions.
What is behaviorism?
The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists agree with 1 but not 2.
Additional information: Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning.
What is humanistic perspective?
A historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
What is cognitive psychology?
The study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.
What is the nature vs. nurture controversy?
The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
What is natural selection?
From among chance variations, nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.
What is evolutionary psychology?
The study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using natural selection.
What are socio-cultural perspectives?
Shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes to the next and how these individuals act toward their social groups.
What are cultural norms?
Unspoken rules of society transmitted through conformity and socialization.
What is positive psychology?
The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.
What is the biopsychosocial approach?
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.
What is behavioral psychology?
Study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning.
What is biological psychology?
Study of links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
Dynamic psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Example sentence: Dynamic psychology explores the underlying motivations behind individuals’ behaviors.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen how it
No additional information
Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
No additional information
Confirmation bias
People’s tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with their existing beliefs
No additional information
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
No additional information
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
No additional information
Operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study
No additional information
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
No additional information
Description
The starting point of any science. We all observe and describe people
No additional information
Case study
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
No additional information
Naturalistic observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
No additional information
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attributes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by surveying a representative, random sample of the group
No additional information
Sampling bias
Hawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentive sample
Example sentence: The survey results were skewed due to sampling bias.
Population
all those in a group being stadied from which samples may be drawin
Sample (Random)
A sample that fairly represents a population ble each member has an exal chame of inclusion
Representative Sample
a sample from a larger group that aurally represents the charackistics of the Papulation
Convenience Sampling
a non-probability sampling methed here units are setuted for Inclusion in the sample bole they are easiest for the researcher to access
Peer Reviewers
evaluation of work by others working in the same field
Correlation
a measure of the extent to which two tactors vary together, and thus of how well each facer predats the other
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical Index of the relutionship between two things
Positive/Negative correlation
when two variables either are the same or inverse
Directionality
does variable A influence Varlable B?
Third variable
Variabies the researcher failed to control/eimate damaging the valdity of an experiment
Variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
Scatterplots
graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the valmes of two variables. Slope suggests the direction of the relationship between the the variables. The amount of scathe suggests the strength of the correlation
Illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stage ta at ate de
Regression toward the mean
the tendency tor extreme or unusual scores or events to regres (fill back) toward the average
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors independent vonides to observe the effrect on some behavor or mental process (dependest variable). By rondom assignment of portipants, the experimenter aims to control other relevent factors
Experiment group
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment (independent variable).
Example: The experiment group received the new medication.
Control group
Group not exposed to treatment, serves as comparison.
Example: The control group received a placebo.
Random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Independent variable
Factor that is manipulated and is being studied.
Dependent variable
Factor that is measured due to independent variable.
Placebo
Fake variable that doesn’t cause any real change.
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone, any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance condition believed to be an active agent.
Single blind / Double blind procedure
Single - Patient believes placebo is real medicine. Double - Both patient and researcher don’t know who has placebo (eliminates bias).
Confounding variables
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence results.
Validity
Extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it’s supposed to do.
Generalizability
The measure of how useful the results of a study are for a larger group of people or situations.
Observer/experimenter bias
When a researcher’s expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive in a study.
Social desirability bias
Type of response bias that occurs when survey responses are provided based on society’s expectations rather than their own beliefs or expectations.
Qualitative + Quantitative research
Qualitative - gathers experiences, perceptions, and behaviors. Quantitative - data/numbers-based, measures how many and how much.
Institutional Review Board
Committee that reviews/approves biomedical and behavioral research studies conducted on humans.
Likert Scales
rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviors
Example sentence: Participants were asked to rate their agreement on a Likert scale from 1 to 5.
Ethical standards
right to life, right to freedom, freedom from injury, and the right to privacy
Debriefing
postexperimental explanation of a study, including purpose and any deceptions
Confidentiality
keeping info about participants confidential
Informed consent
giving participants enough info to let them choose if they want to participate
Benevolence
No harm or bad intentions within a study - Be ethical
Deception
when research gives false info to subjects or intentionally misleads them about a key aspect
Descriptive Statistics
numerical data used to measure/describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Histogram
Bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Measure of central tendency
Single score that represents a whole set of scores (mean, median, mode)
Skewed distribution
representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Range
difference between highest and lowest scores
Variation
how much values differ from one another
Normal curve
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve - Most scores fall near mean and fewer near extremes
Standard deviation
Computed measure of how much scores vary around mean score
Inferential Statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Likert Scales
rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviors
Example sentence: Participants were asked to rate their agreement on a Likert scale from 1 to 5.
Ethical standards
right to life, right to freedom, freedom from injury, and the right to privacy
Debriefing
postexperimental explanation of a study, including purpose and any deceptions
Confidentiality
keeping info about participants confidential
Informed consent
giving participants enough info to let them choose if they want to participate
Benevolence
No harm or bad intentions within a study - Be ethical
Deception
when research gives false info to subjects or intentionally misleads them about a key aspect
Descriptive Statistics
numerical data used to measure/describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Histogram
Bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Measure of central tendency
Single score that represents a whole set of scores (mean, median, mode)
Skewed distribution
representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Range
difference between highest and lowest scores
Variation
how much values differ from one another
Normal curve
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve - Most scores fall near mean and fewer near extremes
Standard deviation
Computed measure of how much scores vary around mean score
Inferential Statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Percentile rank
Percent of individuals above or below a particular value
Effect size
Difference between the average outcomes in two different groups
Effect size
Difference between the average outcomes in two different groups
Biomodel distribution
Occurs when two different values appear most frequently in the data set
Psychometric
Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Basic research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Applied research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Developmental psych
Studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout life span
Educational psych
How psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Personality psych
Indidviduals’ characteristic patterns of thinking , feeling and acting
Social psych
How we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Industrial organizational
Application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
Human factos psych
Allied with industrial organizational that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Human factors psych
Allied with industrial organizational that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Helping professions
Guides people toward healthy relationships, overcoming anxiety, and raising kids
Counseling psychologist
Assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well being
Clinical psychologist
Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Clinical psychologist
Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Psychiatrist
Deals with psychological disorders - practiced by physicians who are licensed to practice medical treatments along with psychological therapy
Community psychologist
Studies how [people interact with their social environment and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Social worker
Works to improve vulnerable people to overcome challenges
