Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

A&P > Test 1 ⭐️ > Flashcards

Test 1 ⭐️ Flashcards

1
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Conditions inside the body that are maintained at near constant conditions

Healthy balance to keep cells happy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is our internal environment?

A

Everything underneath our skin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

How many cells are in our body?

A

35 trillion cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

How does the body maintain constant conditions?

A

Body has many different sensors to adapt to changing conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Give examples of how the body maintains homeostasis:

A

If the body wants to maintain temperature, there needs to be sensors around that are measuring the body temperature so that it can detect a change and then feedback into system that will adjust for the change

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Give examples of how the body maintains homeostasis:

A

If the body wants to maintain temperature, there needs to be sensors around that are measuring the body temperature so that it can detect a change and then feedback into system that will adjust for the change

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Give another example of homeostasis:

A

Walking out into the snow temperature decreases the body senses a decrease, and then will send a signal to bring temp up.

I.e. shivering

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is a key aspect of homeostasis?

A

What goes in must come out
Input yields output and waste products

Input: food and energy.
Output: work heat potential energy number of other things line
Waste products: CO2, H+, water, urea

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

How does the body keep things constant inside?

A

Body has different control mechanisms to maintain homeostasis

Organ systems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What happens to the body under anesthesia?

A

The control mechanisms normally present go off-line
Sensors that monitor blood gas, blood pressure and other things are impaired by the drugs
CRNA must do the work that the nervous system normally does to maintain the homeostasis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is physiology?

A

The study of all the processes that make life happen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is an example of an effect anesthesia has on the body?

A

When under anesthesia in the OR and paralyzed body temperature drops would need to rewarm/monitor with warming device because the nervous system is incapacitated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are some of the processes of homeostasis?

A

Metabolic processes.
Specialized processes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What do cells need in their surroundings?

A

Energy compounds and chemicals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What kind of energy compounds are needed in extracellular fluid

A

Oxygen sugars fats

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are the chemicals used for in the extra cellular fluid?

A

They work to buffer the pH around the cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

How does the kidney maintain homeostasis in the body?

A

Maintains blood pressure
extracellular fluid buffer (normal pH)—electrolytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

How does G.I. system maintain homeostasis?

A

Replacing nutrients in the blood as they are being used by the cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How do the lungs aid in homeostasis?

A

Regulate blood gas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Explain how cardiovascular system aids in homeostasis:

A

Think of “two hearts”
Right heart pump and left heart pump share a wall (septum)

Responsible for effective gas exchange in the lungs and supplying peripheral vascular with proper nutrients

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Describe ECF:

A

Extra cellular fluid: the fluid between the cells.
Lots of compounds helped to keep the values in the ECF constant
-electrolytes
-energy compounds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Describe ICF

A

Intracellular fluid: fluid that is inside the cell

Fluid inside the cells, houses organelles and functions of the cell

Lots of compounds to help keep this fluid constant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is another term for intracellular fluid?

A

Cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

How do peripheral circulatory beds, maintain homeostasis?

A

Use the controller, responsible for blood flow within the cardiovascular system

The amount of blood flow that goes through a tissue is determined by the metabolic demand of the tissue

Example: blood goes into the arterial, and then it has the opportunity to deliver nutrients that Cells will be using and also remove metabolic by products

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

How would metabolic byproducts be removed from the peripheral vascular system?

A

Veins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Explain what happens at peripheral circulatory beds if the cells are burning through oxygen and glucose:

A

Extracellular fluid composition would change because the cells are pulling those nutrients

ECF is deficient of nutrients

This deficiencies are picked up by sensors within the cardiovascular system

Cardiovascular system response by increasing blood flow to increase perfusion and bring the levels in the ECF back to normal

Venus blood flow also picks up to remove byproducts that are being produced faster because the metabolic demand are increased

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

If a cell has increased metabolism, how does it maintain homeostasis?

A

The organ systems respond just enough to meet the metabolic tissue requirements

If there is no increase metabolism, it’s difficult to get a response from the Organ systems

example: would be difficult to get prolong increase in blood flow without increasing metabolism to a peripheral circulatory bed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

Most common control system in the body

Sensor out in periphery can detect changes happen in the body, which is then sent to a controller

The controller perform tasks to counteract what’s happening in the body

Change is negative to the stimuli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Give some examples of negative feedback:

A

Blood pressure drops from 100 to 50:

body senses the drop, and it feeds that information to the nervous system the nervous system act to increase blood pressure

Increase CO2 in the blood:

Sensor notices increase and feeds information to the brainstem which can increase ventilation to bring it CO2 back to normal

Thermostat:

Thermometer within the thermostat senses an increase or decrease and turns on AC or heat to bring the level back to baseline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

How does the body form a safety net for systems important for survival?

A

There are many sensors and systems involved with areas that are key to survival.

More than one change if change is detected in these areas

Example: blood pressure-very important so body has MANY mechanisms to regulate and help keep system functioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What are some negative feedback mechanisms involved with low blood pressure?

A

BP drops:

1: Increase sympathetic nervous system outflow (increase norepinephrine in body increases MAP)

2: Decrease parasympathetic nervous system outflow: rest and digest limited so MAP increases

3: Circulatory compounds in the body
-Increase ADH/AVP: release from pituitary increase MAP (vasoconstriction and retain volume)
-Decrease ANP: (vasodilation)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is a positive feedback?

A

Not as common

The sensor detects change in the body feeds back onto the controller and the change is amplified

Works well as long as the checkpoint is in place

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What is an important aspect of positive feedback to prevent complications?

A

Checkpoint/safety valves to shut down process once goal is achieved

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What happens if positive feedback doesn’t have a checkpoint?

A

The positive feedback would run out of control in a way it shouldn’t be occurring and creates a vicious cycle, causing major problems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

How can you stop a vicious cycle from positive feedback?

A

Only thing to stop vicious cycle is usually once it reaches end organ damage or death

A mild degree of positive feedback can be overcome by the negative feedback control mechanisms and the vicious cycle fails to develop

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Give examples of beneficial positive feedback:

A

1: oxytocin levels during labor and delivery
— uterus contracts to push the fetus to the cervix. cervix has pressure that will cause the cervix to stretch. Cervical stretch causes oxytocin to release from the brain, oxytocin acts on the smooth muscle in the uterus and causes more uterine contractions.
— checkpoint is birth: after birth, oxytocin levels should decrease and contraction stop

2: blood clotting pathways
— injury to blood vessels, endothelial cells release coagulation factors, and they promote platelet plug formation and coagulation
— checkpoint is bleeding has stopped

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is pathologic positive feedback?

A

Amplified change continues to occur past check point

If pathologic positive feedback continue, the system will not survive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Why do most control systems of the body operate by negative feedback rather than positive feedback?

A

Positive feedback leads to instability rather than stability and in some cases can cause death

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are some examples of pathologic positive feedback?

A

1: severe hemorrhage
— decrease blood pressure causes decrease coronary blood flow, which is insufficient to keep up demand of the heart decreases cardiac output further reduces blood pressure

2: sepsis/necrosis
— dying cells due to infection. Dying at a faster rate than body can manage. All of the toxins inside the cells are released to the environment where other cells are. Cell components can be toxic: potassium, metabolic byproducts. Healthy cells can be affected by that release and die as well

3: severe acidosis
— Severe acidosis, the CNS can be so affected that respiratory drive is reduced and further perpetuates acidosis.

4: diabetic renal insufficiency/hyper filtration
— 1 million nephron in each kidney. Nephron die with age do not regenerate in adults so as nephron die, the remaining nephron carry a larger load the larger load on the nephron makes it more likely to die keep dying. You eventually will be in renal failure.

5: athrosclerotic plaque clotting:
— clotting factors continue past checkpoint. Formation of unwanted clots. Lack of blood flow to vital organs. heart attack.

6: peripheral acidotic conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Describe compensated shock:

A

Negative feedback working

Example, hemorrhagic shock:
— can lose 20% of blood volume if totally healthy and be OK. 1 L of blood loss initial drop in blood pressure & drop in cardiac output but should be able to get cardiac put to normal within a few hours through negative feedback responses.
— Blood vessel constrict
— increase heart pumping
— massive fluid shifts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Describe decompensated shock:

A

Positive feedback running rampant

Example, hemorrhagic shock:2L loss
— Lose 40% blood volume difficult to survive despite defense of the body through negative feedback
— negative feedback is inadequate
— too many positive pathologic feedback cycles kick in and outweigh the negative feedback systems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

How would response to anesthesia be different between healthy person and critically ill person?

A

Typical anesthetics will not behave the same in a sick patient compared to a healthy patient

circulation decrease in elderly person

Sick Patient has changes and physiologic systems
—ex: CHF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Describe a cell and its function:

A

Cells are the building blocks of the body

Smallest living unit

Capable of sustaining their own life with elements inside them: enzyme material to create energy

Cells are usually specialized for a specific task based on role and location

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

How many cells are in the body?

A

35 trillion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What type of cell is most abundant in the body?

A

Red blood cells – 25 trillion in the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of cells – like-minded and organize together to perform a function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

What is an organ?

A

A collection of tissues – organs maintain the internal environment of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What is necessary for Cells to replicate?

A

Most cells capable of replication – need to have DNA/normal machinery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What happens if a cell cannot replicate?

A

A nearby progenitor cell can aid with replication

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

What are some examples of cells that cannot replicate, and how do they reproduce.

A

1: Red blood cells: cannot replicate themselves, but bone marrow or progenitor stem cells can reproduce red blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Why can’t red blood cells replicate themselves?

A

Red blood cells do not have genetic material (DNA)

No nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Why is it important for cells to replicate?

A

Cells occasionally die so they need to be able to reproduce

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Examples of cells that don’t replicate often:

A

1: neurons: problems replicating in CNS, do not replicate fast or often

2: heart cells: slow replication rate, only some new cardiac cells during lifespan

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Describe the cell membrane, a.k.a. cell wall:

A

Keep inside components in and outside components out

Phospholipid bilayer

Lipid tails make up bulk of cell wall

Phospholipids create barrier so other charged particles can’t make it through cell wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

How does a phospholipid bilayer work?

A

Phosphate head—charged at cell wall, behave well in water

Lipid tail— uncharged, oily do not behave well in water

Phosphates and lipids aggregate to form bilayer if there are enough around in an aqueous solution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

What is the major element inside the cell?

A

Water: 70 to 85%

Except for adipose cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

After water, what are the most abundant substances in the cell?

A

Proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

What is cytoplasm and what occurs here in the cell?

A

Cytoplasm is the fluid part inside the cell

Lots of chemical reactions take place here — chemical reactions are very important to keep Cell alive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

What is the nucleus and its function?

A

The nucleus is the control center of the cell

Holds DNA

Forms a barrier to keep DNA secure — out of reach of viruses and bacteria

Body is picky about what is allowed into the nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

How do allowed particles get into the nucleus?

A

Pores (opening in nuclear envelope)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

What makes up the nuclear envelope?

A

Double phospholipid by layer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

What is the purpose of the nuclear envelope?

A

Separate cytoplasm from nucleus
Prevent entry of random things into nucleus
VERY selective about what comes in

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum and its function?

A

Extension of nuclear envelope

Important for fat and protein production

Important for calcium storage

Rough and smooth ER

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

What happens at the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Takes info from the nucleus and makes proteins

Small dots on rough ER are ribosomes

Translate and packaged then sent for processing into the cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

What is the function of a ribosome? Where are they located?

A

Ribosomes translate instructions from the nucleus into proteins – stick amino acids together to make proteins

Located in rough ER

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

What happens at smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Specialize for lipid production

No ribosomes here which is why it’s smooth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

How do proteins travel around the cell?

A

Packaged into vesicles: transport vesicles or secretory vesicles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus and its function?

A

Protein modification

Area in cell that allows processing of proteins

Post translational processing— sent to Golgi apparatus after translated by the ribosome

It is common to have to alter proteins to work properly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Describe how a secretory vesicle works in the cell:

A

Used to carry a protein that is trying to go outside of the cell

Released from Golgi apparatus into cytosol

Vesicle moves to the cell wall and fuses with it, then dumps the contents into the area immediately outside Cell wall (ECF)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

How can you get water soluble/charged compounds from one side of the cell to the other?

A

Need help of a protein: proteins can position themselves in the cell wall and permit the passage of charged compounds into cell

Working like a pore

example K+

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

What is cytosol?

A

The jelly like fluid portion of cytoplasm, where particles are dispersed

Surrounds organelles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Where does protein production occur?

A

95% in rough ER
5% outside rough ER in cytosol

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Describe the process of protein production:

A

DNA instructions that encodes protein produce RNA

RNA is readily allowed out of the nucleus, comes into contact with ribosomes

Ribosomes Translate the message from the RNA and link amino acids together to form proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

What is the purpose of ribosomes in the cytosol?

A

Not very concentrated
Don’t do heavy lifting

Usually don’t get packaged when made in the cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

Describe genetic translation:

A

Specific sequence of nucleotides (RNA) dictate which amino acids get stuck together in in which order

Ribosomes move the RNA along a sensor and grab amino acids from the cytosol, then attach them together to form a chain (protein)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

What are the different organelles of a cell?

A

Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
mitochondria
lysosomes
peroxisomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

Describe protein shape:

A

Strings of contorted and folded amino acids

3-D

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

What is the purpose of mitochondria?

A

Produce ATP from energy compounds and oxygen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

Digest by using acidic internal environment

Breakdown proteins that are malfunctioning
— amino acids are recycled

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

What is a peroxisome?

A

Known for breaking down toxins within a cell

Use oxidative stress to destroy things

Abundant and liver – ethanol digestion (catalase enzyme)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

What is an enzyme?

A

Catalyzes chemical reactions

Typically a protein ending in – ACE

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

What are structural components of the cell?

A

Filaments or proteins to prop open, produced inside the cell to give shape

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

What are sugars used for in the cell?

A

1: energy – when floating cytoplasm

2: Glycoprotein: structure, ID tags, anchor cells together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

Where are most sugars located in the cell? UNKNOWN

A

Many sugars are in the cell wall stuck to a protein a.k.a. glycoprotein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

How do sugars function in identification?

A

They take on specific shapes.

Example: human shape, bacterial shape
—immune system can attack non-human cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

How do sugars play a role in structural function of cells?

A

Sugars are sticky— can anchor cells together that are next to each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

Which statement about feedback control systems are is incorrect?

A) most control systems of the body act by negative feedback

B) Positive feedback usually promotes stability in a system

C) Generation of nerve action potentials involves positive feedback

D) Feed-forward control is important in regulating muscle activity

A

B

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

Which on the following organelles is responsible for producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell?

A) ER
B) mitochondria
C) Lysosomes
D) golgi aparatus
E) peroxisomes
F) ribosomes

A

B

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

What role does the charge have on the sugar molecule?

A

Negative Charge.

Plays a role in repelling negatively charged proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

What is special about external sugars?

A

Sugars that have a specific shape and charge

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

How do external sugars work in the kidney?

A

Limit protein filtration

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

Sugars create ATP in cytoplasm using anaerobic metabolism

Glucose is being consumed to create ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

Where does glycolysis typically occur?

A

Cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

What group are glyco– and carboxy– prefixes in?

A

Sugars

Generate ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

What roles do proteins have in the cell?

A

Structural.
Enzymes
Functional

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

What dictates a cells specific task?

A

proteins expressed in the cell dictate what the cell will be good at

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

How is the specialized role of a cell dictated?

A

Genes expressed in the proteins dictate the specialized role of a cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

Do proteins function for generalized tasks?

A

No. Proteins have assigned tasks and are specialized for that task.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

How do proteins function structurally?

A

Help the Cell hold shape

Can help something get across cell wall

force something in a way it may not want to go (pump)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

What is an example of lipid soluble compound?

A

Cholesterol

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

What is a arachidonic acid and where is it found in the cell?

A

It is a long chain fatty acid found in the cell wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

What is cholesterol used for?

A

Used to generate signaling compounds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

Where are fats primarily located?

A

Cell wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
104
Q

What is an example of a task that a lipid has in the cell?

A

Metabolism to turn larger compounds into something more useful

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
105
Q

What is flagella?

A

Moves a cell around it environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
106
Q

What are examples of motility structures for the cell?

A

Flagella
Cilia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
107
Q

What is Cilia?

A

Small projections that come out of the cell
Moving environment around cells
Wave fluid or mucus example: the airway

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
108
Q

What is the necessary step for protein and fat production?

A

RNA processing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
109
Q

Where is majority of genetic materials found in the cell?

A

The nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
110
Q

What is a mitochondrial DNA?

A

Separate from human/host DNA

Inherit all mitochondrial DNA from mother

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
111
Q

How many sets of mitochondrial DNA do we have?

A

12 to 20 different sets: lots of variability with bodies ability to inherit energy producing organelles that are super efficient

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
112
Q

What is mitochondrial DNA used for?

A

Lineage and genetic testing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
113
Q

What would be a negative aspect if we were to only inherit one version of mitochondrial DNA?

A

Probably would not be enough variety to get all the jobs done in our cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
114
Q

What is a part of the cell that is important for anesthesia?

A

The cell wall: how the cell turned itself off and on

Majority of anesthesia drugs dictate the function at the cell wall

When giving anesthesia may want to shut down part of particular system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
115
Q

Why are the ECF and ICF chemistries so important?

A

Chemistry dictates, how drugs are going to work
Example: if the fluid is not within normal pH won’t behave normally

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

How do cells maintain a normal internal pH?

A

Compounds for internal buffers – things in place to maintain pH within normal limits

Example: phosphate compounds are buffers in the intracellular

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
117
Q

What is hydrophilic and an example?

A

Hydrophilic is a particle that behaves well in water

Charged particles are hydrophilic: sodium potassium chloride – they disassociate when put into water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
118
Q

What happens to charged compounds when put into water?

A

They fall apart (hydrophillic)

example sodium chloride: sodium disassociates from chloride leaving both in the solution. This happens because salt is charged and hydrophilic but needs enough water to be dissolved

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
119
Q

What is hydrophobic and an example?

A

Particles that are water fearing

Uncharged particles, oils, usually fats

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
120
Q

What are some example of water soluble things?

A

Ions
Proteins (somewhat)
Gases (some like CO2)
Buffers: found in all containers of the body where it’s important to manage pH
Some drugs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
121
Q

How can you tell if the drug is soluble or insoluble?

A

Can look at container the drug is in if it’s oily and slimy then it’s probably not water soluble

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
122
Q

Why do insoluble drugs look oily?

A

There is probably a carrier protein or a lipid used to get these drugs into the cardiovascular system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
123
Q

How do we give drugs that are water insoluble?

A

Need to give the drug with a carrier to help it get around the cardiovascular system
- carrier protein
-carrier lipid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
124
Q

What is an example of an insoluble drug?

A

Propofol white color is due to lipids that help carry the drug through the cardiovascular system
Need carrier since cardiovascular system is mostly water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
125
Q

What are some insoluble compounds?

A

Cholesterol
Steroids
Lipids
Gases -nitrous
Some drugs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
126
Q

Where are majority of lipids found in the cell?

A

Cell wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
127
Q

Describe ICF and relation to fluid concentration:

A

Largest of internal body fluid compartments
The sum some total of all the water that’s inside all the cells in the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
128
Q

What percent of body mass is water in a healthy person?

A

60% of body mass is water in a 70 kg patient

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
129
Q

What are the compartments that make up total body water?

A

ICF
Interstitial fluid
Plasma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
130
Q

What are the two compartments of ECF?

A

Plasma
Interstitial fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
131
Q

How much of total body water is in the ICF?

A

2/3 of total body water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
132
Q

How much of total body water is in the ECF?

A

1/3 of total body water in ECF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
133
Q

What is interstitial fluid?

A

Fluid that is outside the cell and outside the cardiovascular system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
134
Q

What percent of ECF water Content is in the interstitial fluid?

A

3/4 to 4/5 of ECF fluid is the interstitial fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
135
Q

What percentage of ECF is water in the plasma?

A

1/4 to 1/5 of ECS is water in the plasma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
136
Q

What is plasma?

A

Fluid and cardiovascular system that doesn’t involve blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
137
Q

What is the predicted plasma volume of a 70 kg patient?

A

3.5-2.8L

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
138
Q

What is the predicted interstitial fluid volume of a 70 kg patient

A

10.5-11.2L

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
139
Q

How would total body water differ in an obese patient compared to healthy patient?

A

Obese patient may have big cells with less water and more fat
So that would disrupt the normal water distribution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
140
Q

Why is it useful to have a larger portion of water in the interstitial fluid?

A

If there’s a loss of volume or blood from cardiovascular system, there can be a shift of interstitial fluid to make up for the volume loss

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
141
Q

Why do the plasma and the interstitial fluid have similar fluid composition?

A

The capillary membrane that separates them is leaky so there’s not much difference between the two

Exception is protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
142
Q

What is the function of the capillary membrane?

A

Barrier between the plasma and the interstitial fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
143
Q

How does a capillary membrane vary from the cell wall?

A

The cell wall is a tight barrier

Capillary membrane is endothelial cells that are more porous and permeable: all small charged ions can move between
— capillary membrane is tight enough to prevent proteins from leaking out of the plasma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
144
Q

What is an exception to normal capillary permeability?

A

The brain: capillaries are tight

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
145
Q

What are some differences in ECF and ICF?

A

Different composition of fluid
Different processes happening

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
146
Q

What is a steady state?

A

Sustained differences that are maintained that way in the body at rest

Differences, but they are tightly regulated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
147
Q

How is steady-state different than equilibrium?

A

Steady state doesn’t have to be equal.
Steady state contributes to homeostasis

EX: if sodium concentration was an equilibrium, the cell would be non-functioning
EX: if our body wasn’t equilibrium with the room temp that wouldn’t be good

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
148
Q

ECF and ICF trends of protein

A

Highest in ICF

Five times higher in plasma, then in interstitial fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
149
Q

What are the protein concentrations in the plasma interstitial and intracellular?

A

Plasma protein: 1.2

Interstitial protein: 0.2

Intracellular protein: 4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
150
Q

Which organ produces plasma proteins?

A

Liver

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
151
Q

What is the most major plasma protein?

A

Albumin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
152
Q

ECF and ICF trends of sodium

A

More sodium in ECF: 140-142 mOs/L

ICF sodium much lower: 1/10 ECF Na concentration 14mOs/L

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
153
Q

What is the predominant cation in the ECF?

A

Sodium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
154
Q

How can we estimate overall osmolarity of the blood?

A

Double sodium to estimate osmolarity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
155
Q

ECF and ICF trends of potassium:

A

More potassium in the cell: 30x higher in cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
156
Q

What is a normal level of potassium in ECF?

A

4mEq/L

157
Q

Why are potassium levels much lower than sodium levels?

A

Due to the sodium potassium pump moves the two ions in different directions

158
Q

Why is potassium important in the body?

A

Important for heart function

Potassium is out of wack electrical system in the heart is messed up

159
Q

What are intracellular levels of potassium?

A

30 times higher than outside cell

120mEq/L (neurons)

160
Q

What happens to potassium in unhealthy cells?

A

Potassium may leave the cell and can affect neighboring cells and cause issues

161
Q

What is the function of calcium?

A

Important for turning cells on: opening calcium channels to turn cells on

162
Q

Compare ECF and ICF trends of calcium

A

Hardly any calcium inside the cell

Calcium concentration outside the cell much higher than inside in a resting Cell

10,000:1 ratio

163
Q

What do cells use calcium for?

A

As signal to turn themselves on

In order to be useful signals, you don’t want on all the time

When the cell is resting, calcium levels are low

When neurotransmitter hits, they may spike calcium levels for a little then calcium is removed and cell turns off quickly

164
Q

How is calcium moved in the cell?

A

Calcium is moved by pumps

Transported out of cell after short period of time

165
Q

If there is calcium in the cell, where would it be?

A

Tucked away in the endoplasmic reticulum

There are pumps that would send calcium back to the endoplasmic reticulum for storage

166
Q

What are examples of systems that use calcium?

A

Neurons turn on cells with calcium

Muscle turns on cell with calcium for contraction

167
Q

How is calcium moved in the cell?

A

Pumps

168
Q

What is magnesium used for in the cell?

A

Magnesium is used as cofactor in some of the intracellular functions

Helps with chemical reactions

169
Q

What are the ECF and ICF trends of magnesium?

A

Higher magnesium in ICF: cofactor for chemical reactions required in the cell

170
Q

What are the ECF and ICF trends of chloride?

A

Chloride is the primary anion in ECF

High ECF: blood is salty due to increase concentration of sodium and chloride

Chloride follows distribution of sodium

171
Q

Secondary anion in the blood

A

Bicarbonate

172
Q

What are the ECF and ICF trends of bicarbonate?

A

Higher concentration in ECF

Most important ECF buffer

173
Q

What is bicarbonate used for?

A

bicarbonate is a buffer

174
Q

How are bicarbonate levels managed?

A

Levels are managed by the kidney

Adjust if acid base is off

175
Q

What ions and electrolytes are looked at for anion gap?

A

Chloride and bicarbonate

176
Q

What are the ECF and ICF trends of phosphate compounds?

A

Phosphates are intracellular buffers

Higher concentration in ICF

177
Q

What are the three main functions of phosphate in the cell?

A

Intracellular buffer

On/off function in cell

Energy storage system

178
Q

How do phosphates regulate cell activity?

A

Phosphates can be attached or detached from proteins to regulate activity

Phosphates stick to a target and turn the target either off or on

179
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

Phosphorylation of a target cell can either speed up process or shut it down

Phosphorylation regulates the speed of lots of different systems

180
Q

What is an example of phosphorylation?

A

Muscle function: lots of phosphorylation that happens, and that typically turns on and off the different components path

181
Q

How does phosphate work as an energy storage system?

A

ATP: useful because phosphates can be attached or pulled off depending if we need to burn energy or store energy for cellular reserves

To create ATP have to stick phosphates to adenosine: requires energy to attach each phosphate

As we consume ATP, we pull phosphates off: energy is released

182
Q

What are ECF and ICF trends of amino acid concentration?

A

Higher concentration of amino acids in ICF: needed for protein synthesis

Also high concentration in the cell from breakdown of proteins: amino acids are liberated when a protein is broken down

183
Q

What is creatine? What are the ECF/ICF trends of creatine?

A

Creatine is a high energy storage compound

Majority found on inside of skeletal muscles: higher concentration in ICF

184
Q

How do muscles contract?

A

ATP is used for muscle contractility

Contraction is generated by pulling phosphate off ATP

Each phosphate pull off ATP we release energy energy can be harnessed to do work

185
Q

Describe a creatine compound and how it can be useful in skeletal muscles:

A

Creatine can be phosphorylated: add a phosphate to creatine to create phosphocreatine

When under high exertion, some skeletal muscles pull phosphates from phosphocreatine first to generate skeletal muscle contraction

Creatine compound can give short term energy reserve (most of energy is still from ATP)

186
Q

Why can’t phosphocreatine be used to generate muscle contractility instead of ATP?

A

Phosphocreatine is depleted quickly due to small amounts that are quickly burned

If phosphocreatine is present and the muscle is using a lot of energy it will pull the phosphates off creatine before breaking down ATP

187
Q

What are the ECF/ICF trends of lactate?

A

Lactate is a metabolic byproduct produced inside cells

So higher concentration of lactate intracellular

All metabolism is happening in the cell

188
Q

What are the ECF/ICF trends of adenosine Triphosphate?

A

ATP is super valuable inside cell: high concentration in ICF
ATP is formed and used inside the cell
ATP Not found outside the cell at all

189
Q

When would be an instance that all or part of ATP could leave the Cell?

A

Adenosine by itself can leak outside of the cell (all phosphates must be pulled off)
ATP—>ADP—>AMP—>adenosine
Adenosine is much smaller than ATP

190
Q

How is adenosine useful in the cell?

A

Increase blood flow in an area that is highly metabolically active

Adenosine Opens up blood vessels: at active tissue, this will help perfuse the tissue and take care of metabolic requirements needed for tissue to do task

191
Q

What are the ECF/ICF trends of glucose.

A

Glucose is lower in ICF compared to ECF

Most cells do not produce glucose

Glucose comes in from outside of cells

192
Q

What are some functions of glucose?

A

Glucose can be turned into long-term energy storage compound

Glucose can be used for ATP production in short order

193
Q

What is urea?

A

Uria is a byproduct of metabolism
Kidneys use recycling of urea to fine-tune water management

194
Q

What are the ECF/ICF trends for total osmolarity?

A

Consistent between ECF and ICF: because water movement is not usually inhibited between fluid dividers (cell wall, capillary membrane)

If one container has a change in contents water should move to correct that change

Water moves into areas that are more concentrated with solute and the water movement should correct osmolarity differences

195
Q

What is total osmolarity?

A

The number that tells us total dissolved compounds in a fluid sample

All solid numbers added up

196
Q

How are osmolarity differences corrected by the cell?

A

Water movement into areas that are more concentrated with solute

197
Q

How can osmolarity be predicted?

A

Plasma sodium concentration doubled

Predicted number close to 300

198
Q

How is biological osmolarity different than predicted osmolarity and why?

A

Not all items will freely dissociate from one another

Electrolytes get close enough together they don’t freely dissociate: sodium may want to be close to chloride since they have opposite charges and the closer they are the less they behave like individual compounds

There are many charge particles in fluid and attraction between opposite charge compounds

Biologic osmolarity is less than predicted

199
Q

What is the corrected estimate of total osmolarity?

A

280-282

200
Q

What is an example of when total osmolarity is useful?

A

Useful when looking at fluid shift

Example, fluid shift in cranium: someone with increased ICP need to keep a close eye on sodium levels because they’re good indicators of total osmolarity

Total osmolarity governs how water moves from cardiovascular system to cranium

201
Q

What is total osmotic pressure?

A

Molarity of solutions can generate large amounts of osmotic pressure (mmHg units)

All dissolved things in water can generate pressure greater than 5000mmHg

202
Q

Why is it important to keep osmolarity within a normal range?

A

If we keep osmolarity in normal range, it will maintain the osmotic pressure and prevent complications to the brain from increased pressure

203
Q

What are some items that are stuck in the cell wall?

A

Phospholipids
Protein
Glycoproteins
Glycolipids

204
Q

What are glycolipids?

A

Sugars that are stuck to a phospholipid in the cell wall

205
Q

What is the glycocalyx?

A

The sum of all external sugar structures that the body uses for immune system function

Grouping glycoproteins and glycolipids together

206
Q

How does the body use the glycocalyx for immune response?

A

If the sugars do not look right, not in the right order orientation, then the immune system will investigate

207
Q

How does uncontrolled diabetes affect the glycocalyx?

A

Glycocalyx no longer looks normal (extra sugars bound make look not human)

Extra sugars are stuck to the normal sugars if blood sugar is high for long periods of time

Uncontrolled diabetes creates a massive, inflammatory response mediated through the extra sugars, stuck to the normal sugars

208
Q

Where are glycolproteins normally located?

A

Large proteins that span the entire width of the cell wall

209
Q

Where are most of the precursor molecules located?

A

In the cell wall

Usually are large lipids and uncharged hydrophobic

Example cholesterol

210
Q

What happens if too much cholesterol is stored in the cell wall

A

Cell Wall could become rigid and blood vessels less stretchy in the cardiovascular system

NOT GOOD

211
Q

What is the tail of a phospholipid mostly made of?

A

Uncharged oily, mostly hydrogen and carbons

212
Q

What is the structure of membrane cholesterol?

A

Planer molecule: flat and rigid

Increases stiffness of blood vessels

Reduces cell wall fluidity

213
Q

What does cholesterol produce?

A

Sex hormones
Stress hormones

214
Q

How is cholesterol used in our food?

A

Cholesterol is used to create a smooth texture at low temp

Cholesterol is easy to remove from food— but food without cholesterol would have a weird texture and not taste right

215
Q

What is the chemical structure of a fat molecule?

A

Anytime just hydrogen is bound to a long string of carbons= fat molecule

No charge

-OH group on the end is how it orient itself to the cell wall

216
Q

How does cholesterol arrange itself in the cell wall?

A

Sandwiches into the lipid tale of the cell wall: very lipid soluble

-OH group (only polar part) sticks out into the water so body can grab it if needed and change it into something else

217
Q

How much of cholesterol is produced by the body (endogenous)?

A

80%: body usually makes more than what it needs

218
Q

How much cholesterol is brought in by diet (exogenous)

A

20% cholesterol in the body

Trying to fix cholesterol with only diet will only get you so far

219
Q

What is a drug that interferes with cholesterol synthesis pathway?

A

Statin: reduces the amount of cholesterol being produced by endogenous system

220
Q

What does the body use to build cholesterol?

A

Acetyl-CoA

221
Q

What is aceytl-CoA?

A

Generic big sugar compounds used as a substrate to build other things in the body

Widely available byproduct of metabolism

222
Q

What are examples of compounds acetyl-CoA can assist in producing?

A

Cholesterol
ATP production from glucose and oxygen

223
Q

How does acetyl-CoA produce ATP?

A

Need to have the right enzymes around

224
Q

What are cholesterol metabolites?

A

Enzymatic actions that change the structure of cholesterol a little bit

Requires a lot of manipulation before turning into hormones

225
Q

What are the sex hormones cholesterol can be turned into

A

Estradiol
Testosterone
Progesterone
Androstenedione

226
Q

What is the third most active cholesterol driven sex hormone?

A

Progesterone

227
Q

What is androstenedione?

A

Testosterone precursor

What was used by baseball players years ago to beef up

228
Q

What are the stress hormones produced by cholesterol?

A

Cortisol
aldosterone

229
Q

What are the six hormones derived from cholesterol?

A

Estradiol
Testosterone
Progesterone
Androstenedione
Cortisol
Aldosterone

230
Q

Where are cortisol and aldosterone synthesized?

A

Adrenal glands: go through lots of cholesterol

231
Q

Describe the structural variance between cortisol and aldosterone

A

Not a lot of variation and structure between the two

Cortisol has an -OH group

232
Q

What would happen if cortisol OH group was oriented to the outside of the cell?

A

-OH group needs to be oriented inside the cell for the body to pull it for use?

if orientated to outside, would need to wait for orientation to change before it could be used (different isomer)

233
Q

Are there similarities between the hormones produced by cholesterol?

A

Metabolites look very similar because from same parent compound

May have different bonds

Structural changes between the compounds create different effects on receptors they interact with

234
Q

Are cholesterol metabolites receptor specific?

A

Cholesterol metabolites have some cross reactivity with their receptors because they all look very similar

Example: aldosterone receptor looks a lot like cortisol receptor so if you have a bunch of aldosterone and no cortisol aldosterone can interact with the cortisol receptors

235
Q

How is cholesterol turned into different compounds?

A

Must have an enzyme to make changes to the parent compound

Enzymes are usually near the cell wall

Will not be able to produce cortisol if a single enzyme is missing

236
Q

What is the structure of a specialized phospholipid?

A

An extra compound stuck to the polar head of phospholipid

237
Q

How are specialized phospholipids named?

A

Phosphatidyl— + name of compound

238
Q

What do phosphatidyl compound do in a cell?

A

They can be involved in signal transduction

Most play a role in surfactant production

239
Q

What is surfactant made up of?

A

Combination of proteins and phosphatidyl compounds

240
Q

What is the purpose of surfactant?

A

breaks surface tension of the fluid inside lungs and is important for normal lung function

Without surfactant lungs will not work right

Every lung disorder has some surfactant deficiency

241
Q

What are the four main phosphatidyl compounds?

A

Phosphatidylinositol (PI)

Phosphatidylserine (cytosolic)

Phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PE)

Phosphatidylcholine (PCh)

242
Q

What do you know about phosphatidylinositol?

A

Inositol is stuck to the phospholipid— in the cell wall for storage

IP3 makes smooth muscle contract

Can be used in smooth muscles to regulate contraction

243
Q

What do you know about phosphatidylserine?

A

immunologic markers

Healthy cell should only have this on the internal part of the cell

If immune system sees serine in a place it shouldn’t be. It will destroy whatever it’s attached to.

244
Q

What happens if phosphatidylserine moves to the outer side of the cell wall?

A

Flippase enzyme takes serines and flips them back into normal position in the cell

Flippase works quickly before immune system can catch

Flippase needs energy to move serine back (need good ATP amount)

245
Q

What happens in regard to phosphatidylserine in a dying cell?

A

When a cell is dying, the inside runs out of ATP

Flippase Needs ATP so it stops working in these cells

Immune system will target serine outside the Cell to break down cell and recycle components

246
Q

What causes a dying cell to be broken down by the immune system?

A

Destruction of the cell is mediated by energy deficiency that causes dysfunctional Flippase activity

247
Q

What do you know about phosphatidylcholine?

A

Storage molecule useful in signaling transduction/ cell signaling

Used to stash choline for using the body: need Choline to assemble acetylcholine

248
Q

What is sphingomyelin?

A

Compound stuck in the cell wall

Fatty compound used to construct myelin

249
Q

Describe the characteristics of arachidonic acid

A

Poly unsaturated fatty acid

Long chain fatty acid

Found in cell wall

Manipulated by the body to accomplish many different tasks

Parent compound to lots of things

250
Q

What are the three important compounds we looked at that are produced by arachidonic acid?

A

Prostaglandins and TXA2

Leukotrienes

HETEs/EETs

251
Q

What is thromboxane A2?

A

Helps control blood vessel bleeding by initiating vasospasm

Works on blood vessels to tighten up and squeeze them when injured so coagulation factors can stop the bleeding

A Good thing for blood vessel to squeeze or Vasospasm to close and heal before reopening

252
Q

What enzymes produce prostaglandins and TXA2?

A

COX1 and COX2 enzymes

COX1 and COX2 are cyclooxygenase enzymes

Manipulated by many different drugs

253
Q

What is an example of common drug that work on Cox1 and COX2?

A

Aspirin/NSAIDs/Tylenol

254
Q

What happens if we reduce activity of COX1 and COX2 enzymes?

A

Would reduce amount of prostaglandins in the body

255
Q

What is another another name for PGI2?

A

Prostacyclin

256
Q

What are prostaglandins?

A

Ramp up pain signals in the body

Increase pain sensitivity enough for us to notice the pain

257
Q

What can we do in the prostaglandin pathway to treat pain

A

Knocked down prostaglandin synthesis by inhibiting COX1 and COX2 enzymes

258
Q

How are prostaglandins formed?

A

COX1 and COX2 catalyze (speed up) two chemical reactions in a row

COX enzymes turn arachidonic acid into precursor compound PGG2

Then COX enzymes turn PGG2 into prostaglandin H2 (PGH2)

Specialized enzymes Direct compounds (PGE2, PGI2, PGF2alpha, TXA) into different pathways

259
Q

What is an example an enzyme used to convert PGH2 into other specific prostaglandins?

A

Prostaglandin E2 is put together by enzyme prostaglandin E2 synthase

260
Q

Tell me what you know about COX1 Enzyme:

A

Widespread in the body

Lots of tissues are capable of producing prostaglandins and TXA2 because of COX1

261
Q

Tell me what you know about COX2 enzymes:

A

COX2 is more inducible form of cyclooxygenase: expressed in response to inflammatory stimuli

turned on to pain/ harmful stimuli in event something bad is happening

Drugs that affect COX2 are useful in treating pain

Drugs more specific for COX2 are more effective for pain management

262
Q

Why were very specific COX2 inhibitors pulled off the market?

A

Very effective and strong pain meds

COX2 is also involved in keeping kidneys healthy and heart help make corrections after period of ischemia or infarction

Removed from market because of cardiovascular events

263
Q

What is an example of a super specific COX2 inhibitor?

A

Vioxx: off market because cardiovascular events

264
Q

What is the strongest over-the-counter painkiller?

A

Naproxen—more COX2 specific

265
Q

What is the leukotriene arm in AA responsible for?

A

immune mediated inflammation

266
Q

What is the enzyme responsible for turning AA into leukotrienes?

A

Lipoxygenase (LO)

267
Q

What are HETEs and EETs used for?

A

Important mediators in acute inflammatory responses (acute renal failure)
- these drugs are hard to deal with because they’re unstable

268
Q

Arachidonic acid and HETE/EET are ___, while leukotrienes and prostaglandins are ___

A

hydrophobic; hydrophilic

269
Q

What are some functions of proteins in the cell membrane?

A

Transport complexes, enzymes, receptors

270
Q

What are some ways that water can get in and out of the cell?

A

They can sneak through electrolyte channels or through aquaporins that are dedicated for water

271
Q

What is simple diffusion through the cell membrane?

A

It allows things to move across the cell wall without any help, and it does not require any ATP

272
Q

What is something that can cross the cell wall through simple diffusion?

A

Gasses

273
Q

What is a channel protein used for?

A

It is another form of simple diffusion that provides a conduit to allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane

274
Q

Why is a channel protein still considered simple diffusion?

A

It does not require energy;
does not require binding, conformational change and releasing

275
Q

What dictates movement in simple diffusion?

A

concentration or electrical gradient of the cell/compound

276
Q

What charge does a resting cell have?

A

Negative

277
Q

What is movement across a cell membrane that requires energy called?

A

Active transport (pumps require energy)

278
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

It includes binding, conformational change, then releasing, but does not require energy

279
Q

What is facilitated diffusion dependent on?

A

How many transporters you have and then concentration gradient

280
Q

What is an example of facilitated diffusion?

A

GLUT transporters

281
Q

What are GLUT 4 transporters used for?

A

They are insulin dependent

If you have more insulin in the body it pulls more transporters to the cell wall - this will pull more glucose into the cell and decrease your blood sugar

282
Q

What percent of glucose movement across the membrane occurs through GLUT 4 transporters?

A

98%

283
Q

What is GLUT 1 transporters used for?

A

Red blood cells

284
Q

How does the sodium/potassium ATP ase pump work?

A

It takes one ATP, rips off a phosphorus to make it ADP and this energy is used to move 5 ions in a direction they don’t want to go

285
Q

What 5 ions are moved in the Na/K pump and which direction do they go?

A

3 sodium move out of the cell and 2 potassium move into the cell

286
Q

What percent of the cells energy goes to the Na/K pump?

A

60-70%
This is the most energy consuming process in the body

287
Q

What are some examples of active transport?

A

Na/K pump
Calcium specific pump
Proton pump
Sodium calcium exchanger
Sodium glucose channels

288
Q

What is the sodium concentration ratio of ECF:ICF?

A

10:1

289
Q

What is the potassium concentration ratio of ECF:ICF?

A

1:30

290
Q

What are the two types of active transport and what is the difference?

A

First degree: directly uses ATP by the pump itself
Second degree: uses energy from another process that burns ATP

291
Q

What is the calcium concentration ratio of ECF:ICF?

A

10,000:1

292
Q

What type of transport is a calcium pump that moves Ca ion outside of the cell and requires energy?

A

First degree active transport

293
Q

How does a proton pump work?

A

Uses ATP directly to take a proton (hydrogen ion) and move it to the outside of the cell to create a more acidic environment

294
Q

How does a sodium calcium exchanger work?

A

a transport protein in the membrane pushes calcium out of the cell against it’s electrochemical gradient in exchange for 3 sodium to come into the cell

295
Q

Give examples of first degree and second degree active transport

A

First degree: Na/K ATPase pump, Calcium pump, Proton pump
Second degree: NCX, Sodium glucose transporters

296
Q

How does the sodium glucose transporters work?

A

If we want to move glucose into the cell faster than it wants to go, then it can hitch a ride with sodium because sodium is already traveling down it’s gradient

not found throughout body: specific to kidneys to reabsorb glucose after its been filtered

297
Q

Where are GLUT 4 transporters typically found?

A

Muscle and fat: large systems that can impact the rest of the body if increased glucose transport: using all the glucose in the blood

298
Q

What is Vmax?

A

maximal speed conformation change can occur in transporters for facilitated diffusion

once at max rate and max amount of transporters cant really transport any faster

299
Q

What is total osmotic pressure?

A

Amount of physical hydraulic pressure generated via osmosis
OR
amount of force we would have to exert to prevent movement d/t osmosis

300
Q

What is the difference between osmolality and osmolarity?

A

Osmolality: quantity of “stuff” dissolved in 1kg of water

Osmolarity: Quantity of “stuff” dissolved in 1L of solution

1L of solution is less water than 1L of water

301
Q

Specific cells Tylenol targets in COX pathway:

A

Neurons: useful pain control and stays away from bleeding aspect because it specifically acts in nervous system

302
Q

Primary way Ca2+ is removed from cells:

A

NCX: sodium calcium exchanger

303
Q

At sea level, what offsets osmotic pressure?

A

increased weight

304
Q

List some factors that contribute to rate at which items move across cell wall:

A

Concentration: if bigger difference moves faster

Lipid solubility: more lipid soluble moves faster

Size: smaller=faster

Pores: more pores=faster movement

Temp: higher temp faster movement

Physical pressure: pushing something through cell wall (pumps)

Charges: increased rate with opposite charge

305
Q

How does Na/K pump maintain osmolarity?

A

Gets rid of excess Na+ in cell
Water follows when Na+ is pumped out
Helps maintain intracellular volume

306
Q

What would happen to the cell if Na/K pump stopped working?

A

Na+ would build up in cell
Water would build up in cell
Intracellular edema :(

307
Q

Why can’t we just give lasix to deal with intracellular edema?

A

It wont work on the cellular level
Very difficult to fix intacellular edema: would need to fix Na/K ATPase

308
Q

Patient is septic in ICU and not meeting energy requirements body needs: what is happening inside the body?

A

Na/K pump is not pumping as fast because there is not a good source of ATP

intracellular edema

309
Q

Where does the Na+ inside the cell come from?

A

1) Secondary active transport processes: NCX
2) Cell wall is somewhat leaky to Na+ at rest
3) Na+ comes into cells during action potentials

310
Q

What contributes to resting membrane potential in a cell?

A

1) Na/K pump
2) Protein distribution within cell wall
3) Electrolyte gradients

311
Q

What is typical membrane potential of a resting cell?

A

-80mV

312
Q

What happens to membrane potential when a cell is activated?

A

Briefly flips positive then goes back to resting state so it can be excited again

313
Q

What does negative membrane potential indicate?

A

A resting cell that is ready to go

314
Q

How do proteins contribute to membrane potential?

A

Proteins usually have negative charge (amino acids are majority negative)

Proteins make inside of cell negative

315
Q

What is the typical process of generating an action potential?

A

Na+ floods cell, membrane potential becomes more positive

316
Q

How does Na/K pump contribute to resting membrane potential?

A

Moving one positive charge out on each cycle of the pump

Sets up all electrolyte gradients in cell

317
Q

Vrm:

A

Resting membrane potential (mV)

318
Q

What is voltage?

A

Potential difference between 2 places

319
Q

Nernst Potential AKA Equilibrium Potential equation:

A
320
Q

What is the nernst potential used for?

A

Formula that tells us what charge the cell would be if it were only permeable to ONE ion

Good estimate of overall membrane potential

321
Q

What would we expect membrane potential to be if cell is only permeable to Na+?

A

+61mV

322
Q

What would we expect membrane potential to be if cell is only permeable to K+?

A

-90mV

323
Q

What happens when K+ concentrations are changed ?

A

Heart problems related to membrane potential (impact on electrical system of heart)

Messes with underlying membrane potentials of all excitable cells

324
Q

What dictates overall charge of the cell?

A

Everything the cell is permeable to that is charged

325
Q

What is a cell permeable to at rest?

A

Very permeable to K+
Slightly permeable to Na+

10X more permeable to K+ than Na+

326
Q

What is a cell permeable to when active?

A

Could become more permeable to Na+ or Ca2+

327
Q

What is the dominant electrolyte that determines resting membrane potential?

A

K+

328
Q

Goldman Equation

A

Combination of equilibrium potentials for each ion in same equation

Looks at concentration gradient of each ion with relative permeability factor

329
Q

What does EMF stand for?

A

Membrane potential
Electromagnetic Force
Electromagnetic flux
Motive force

330
Q

What heavily influences membrane potential and whether a cell will be + or - ?

A

Ion with the highest permeability

331
Q

Why is the predicted osmolarity higher than the biological osmolarity (corrected osmolarity)?

A

Not all ions freely disassociate so they don’t behave as individual –> which is what predicted osmolarity is showing

332
Q

How is osmotic pressure calculated?

A

osmolality (osmolarity) x 19.3 mmhg

333
Q

How do drugs interact with electronegativity of the cell?

A

All drugs interact with membrane potentials of cell

Membrane potential is manipulated by many drugs

334
Q

What characteristics determine how electrolytes affect electrical activity of the cell?

A

Concentration gradients
Charge of ion

335
Q

How does Chloride permeability alter membrane potential of neurons?

A

inhibits action potentials

336
Q

what is important to look at when trying to figure out membrane permeability of a cell?

A

chemical gradient

cell wall permeability to electrolytes

337
Q

Why is it beneficial to know equilibrium potential of individual ions?

A

Equilibrium potential is the charge required on inside of the cell to prevent an electrolyte from moving down its concentration gradient

338
Q

If cell is only permeable to one ion, what would the membrane potential be?

A

membrane potential of that cell would be dictated by nernst potential of that ion

339
Q

What would the membrane potential be of a cell that is only permeable to Na+?

A

+61mV

340
Q

What are the permeability trends of K+ and Na+ for a cell at rest?

A

A cell at rest is VERY permeable to K+ and permeable to Na+

10x more permeable to K+ than Na+

341
Q

What happens to membrane permeability during an action potential?

A

cell is more permeable to Na+

342
Q

What 3 things determine an ions driving force?

A
  • charge of the ion
  • the concentration gradient
  • charge of the inside of the cell
343
Q

If a cell at rest (-80mV) was permeable to sodium, potassium, and calcium, which would have the greatest driving force?

A

Calcium
- it has two positive charges
- it has a greater concentration gradient (10,000:1) than potassium and sodium

344
Q

What is typical membrane potential during an action potential?

A

> 0mV

345
Q

What would slow down the driving force of sodium and calcium going into the cell?

A

If the cell is depolarized during an action potential and has a positive charge of +35

346
Q

What is another way to define equilibrium potential?

A

The charge on the inside of the cell that’s required to prevent an electrolyte from moving down it’s concentration gradient

347
Q

What charge would the cell need to keep potassium parked inside the cell?

A

-90 mV

348
Q

What charge would the cell need to keep sodium from coming into the cell?

A

+61 mV

349
Q

What are leak channels?

A

Most cells have leak channels

They are channels that are always open and “leaking” electrolytes

350
Q

Why is the movement of potassium out of the cell blunted?

A

Because the cell normally has a net negative charge, the potassium is pretty happy staying in the negative charge

351
Q

What type of leak channels are usually seen in a cell at rest?

A

Lots of K+ leak channels

a few Na+ leak channels (some resting Na+ permeability)

352
Q

Why don’t we have to actually have any current?

A

All we need is the POTENTIAL to have current

353
Q

What drugs do voltage-gated sodium channels have an effect on?

A

Drugs that end in -caine
Lidocaine, bupivacaine, etc.

354
Q

Do Na+ leak channels cause action potentials?

A

Not by themselves–would need help from voltage gated Na+ channels

355
Q

What causes the voltage gated channels to open?

A

when there is a change in voltage

356
Q

What are some characteristics of voltage-gated sodium channels?

A
  • very fast to open and close
  • highly selective for sodium
357
Q

What happens to K+ concentration gradient in a patient with hyperkalemia?

A

Concentration gradient would decrease

K+ no longer wants to leave cell as fast as normal

358
Q

Describe how a voltage-gated sodium channel opens and closes

A
  • Under resting conditions the activation gate (outside) is closed and the inactivation (inside) gate is open
  • With stimulus the activation gate swings open to allow sodium into the cell
  • The inactivation gate slams shut
  • During repolarization, the gates are reset
359
Q

What happens to K+ equilibrium potential in a patient with hyperkalemia?

A

Equilibrium potential becomes more positive

360
Q

What would happen to membrane potential in cell that has normal Na+ concentration and decreased K+ concentration gradient?

A

There would be new range for Vrm

would be more positive but still close to equilibrium potential of K+

361
Q

Why is repolarization so important for VG sodium channels?

A

If repolarization doesn’t happen and the cell doesn’t go back to it’s resting state, the cell might not be able to perform another action potential

362
Q

How do VG potassium channels differ from VG sodium channels?

A

Potassium VG gates are slower to open and close so they’re not acting at the same time as the sodium gates

363
Q

Why is it bad when K+ is out of whack?

A

Messing with prime determinant of resting membrane potential

364
Q

Describe hyperpolarization in regards to the VG potassium channels -

A

Because the gates are slower to close, it lets a little more potassium come in than what’s needed

365
Q

Why is it bad if Vrm is at an abnormal level?

A

Cell will not function normally and may be more or less difficult to excite

366
Q

What is a cardiac issue involved with higher than normal Vrm?

A

EKG issues

Cell not able to rest and not able to work properly

V-fib when K+ is high enough

367
Q

What is Polarization?

A

charge difference between inside and outside cell

normal resting polarity is negatively charged

368
Q

How long is typical action potential?

A

About 3 milliseconds

369
Q

What is depolarization?

A

Cell is excited and becomes more positively charged

membrane potential increases

Na+ or Ca2+ floods cell from action potential

370
Q

What is repolarization?

A

Returning cell back to resting state

from depolarized to repolarized

From peak of action potential back to normal–voltage gated K+ channels open

371
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

happens in the process of repolarizing cell–overshoot

dip below normal resting (-80mV) more difficult to excite

can happen naturally when cell is at rest

372
Q

What is conductance?

A

The ease at which an ion can get across cell wall

how much ion flow there is

inverse to resistance

373
Q

Why wont action potential ever reach +60mV?

A

That would require all K+ channels to be closed which will never happen

374
Q

How do we send messages throughout body?

A

action potentials

375
Q

Give example of how actions potentials can differ depending on where they are located:

A

action potentials have different shapes depending on which channels are involved:

fast action potential in heart, plateau phase

376
Q

Why is the plateau phase important for cardiac action potentials?

A

action potential is sustained for longer amount of time

useful because that time in action potential defines how well heart muscle will pump

377
Q

How does hyperkalemia affect action potential?

A

Hyperkalemia makes the membrane potential more positive and doesn’t allow the sodium channels to reset and could either prevent more action potentials or limit the amount of action potentials the cell has

378
Q

How does hyperkalemia affect your heart in relation to action potential?

A

Because the hyperkalemia could slow/shut down the sodium channels and could lead to a slower heart rate/arrhythmia
- the pause in the action potential is what controls how well the heart muscle pumps

379
Q

How is osmotic pressure corrected if out of whack?

A

Vasopressin

380
Q

What is Dr. Schmidts hometown?

A

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

381
Q

Where did Dr. Schmidt get his undergrad degree?

A

University of Wisconsin (Milwaukee campus)

382
Q

Where did Dr. Schmidt go to grad school?

A

Medical college of Wisconsin - graduated in ‘08

383
Q

What are Dr. Schmidt’s degrees?

A

Undergrad: Biological Science
Grad: PhD in Physiology

384
Q

Regarding transport of substances through the cell membrane, what characterizes active transport ?

A. It is mediated by a carrier protein.
B. It is selective of specific substances.
C. It relies on a concentration gradient.
D. It requires an additional source of energy.

A

D

385
Q

This organelle functions to be the intracellular digestive system containing hydrolase enzyme granules…

A. Agranular endoplasmic reticulum
B. Lysosomes
C. Peroxisomes
D. Ribosomes

A

B

386
Q

Translation is the process by which:

A. RNA is formed using DNA as a pattern within the cell nucleus
B. Water soluble substances are transported across a phospholipid membrane
C. Chromosomes are condensed during mitosis
D. Proteins are synthesized using RNA as a template

A

D

387
Q

Higher in extracellular or intracellular fluid:| Amino acids, bicarbonate, chloride, fatty acids, glucose, magnesium, oxygen, phosphate, potassium, sodium

A

Intracellular - potassium, magnesium, phosphate, amino acids

Extracellular - sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, oxygen, glucose, fatty acids

388
Q

Define transcription and translation:

A

Transcription - DNA => RNA

Translation - RNA => protein

A&P (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions