Test 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What percent of parents report spanking their kids?
A
25%
2
Q
How does spanking affect behavior?
A
It makes behavior worse and effects last longer
3
Q
What are effective alternatives to spanking?
A
- Sympathy: children can better cope with the distress
- Finding positive alternatives to expressing their feelings
- Timeouts
4
Q
What is the turtle technique?
A
Children feel themselves getting angry they move away from other children and retreat into their “turtle shells”, where they think through the situation until they are ready
5
Q
What is a meta-analysis?
A
statistical method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions;
6
Q
What are 3 reasons to study child development?
A
- Raising children
- Choosing Social Policies
- Understand human nature
7
Q
What do Nativists argue?
A
children are born with an innate ability to organize laws of language
8
Q
What do Empiricists argue?
A
all learning comes from only experience and observation
9
Q
What were Plato and Aristotle particulary interested in?
A
- How children are influenced by their nature and by the nature they receive
- The long-term welfare of society depended on proper raising of children
10
Q
Why did Plato view the rearing of boys as a particular challenge?
A
They are the craftiest, most mischievous, and unruliest of brutes
11
Q
What did Plato emphasize as the most important goals of education?
A
Self-control and discipline
12
Q
Aristotle agreed with Plato that discipline was necessary but he was more concerned with…
A
fitting child rearing to the needs of the individual child gives the child a better chance of receiving treatment that suits him
13
Q
How did Plato believe children acquired knowledge?
A
Children have innate knowledge
14
Q
What did Aristotle believe children acquired knowledge?
A
Knowledge comes from experience and the mind of an infant is like a clean blackboard
15
Q
How does Locke view children?
A
As a Tabula Rose, a blank slate, whose development reflects the nurture provided by the child’s parents and society, and the most important goal is the growth of character
16
Q
How does one build a child’s character?
A
Set good examples of honesty, stability, and gentleness, and avoid indulging the child
17
Q
What did Locke believe once discipline and reason had been instilled in the child?
A
Authority should be relaxed as fast as their age, discretion, and good behavior could allow it
The sooner you treat him as a man, the sooner he will begin to be one
18
Q
What does Rosseau believe that parents and society should give children?
A
Maximum freedom from the beginning
19
Q
How do children learn according to Rousseau?
A
From spontaneous interactions with objects and other people, rather than parents or teachers
20
Q
At what age does Rousseau believe children should receive formal education?
A
12 which is the “age of reason”
21
Q
What was one of the first methods for studying children?
A
Darwin’s “baby biography” for day-to-day development
22
Q
Nature
A
biological endowment, genes we receive from our parents
23
Q
How does nature affect us?
A
influences every aspect of our makeup, physical appearance, personality, intellect, and propensity for thrill-seeking
24
Q
Nurture
A
the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
25
What determines how a person develops?
Nature and Nurture
Both biology and the environment
26
With twins, if one has schizophrenia what is the chance that the other twin has schizophrenia?
40-50%
27
What did the study of adopted children and schizophrenia indicate?
Children whose birth parent was schizophrenic and who got adopted into a troubled family
28
Genome
person's complete set of hereditary information, DNA, and all of its genes
29
What does a genome influence
behaviors and experiences
30
Epigenetic
- The study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
- How experience gets under the skin
- Chromatin modification
- Easiest to study
31
Methylation
A biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression (stress)
32
If the mother carried more stress during their childs infancy it...
related to the amount of methylation in children's genomes 15 years later
33
Increased Methylation in the cord-blood DNA of newborns of depressed mothers/adults who were abused led researchers to speculate...
children are at a higher risk for depression as adults
34
How do infants shape their development?
Selective attention
35
What is Selective Attention?
Attend more to objects that move and make sounds
36
What are infants particularly drawn to?
Faces, especially their mother's face
37
At what age do children begin to speak?
9-15 months
38
What age does a young child's "fantasy play" typically begin?
2
39
What does play teach children?
how to cope with fear, resolve disputes, interact with others
40
What is continuous change?
Small changes, small increments, like a tree
41
What is discontinuous change?
Changes with age include occasional large shifts, like a transition from caterpillar to cocoon
42
What are Stage Theories?
Approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases
43
What is cognitive development?
the development of thinking and reasoning
44
What are the 3 Developmental mechanisms
Behavioral, neural, or genetic
45
Mathematical development has been explained through
Behavioral mechanisms
46
Increased interconnection between the frontal cortex and intraparietal sulcus has been explained through
Neural mechanisms
47
The presence or absence of specific alleles has been explained through
Genetic mechanisms
48
What is effortful attention?
Voluntary control of one's emotions and thoughts
inhibiting impulses, controlling emotions, focusing attention
49
What does difficulty in exerting effortful attention associated with?
Behavioral problems, weak math and reading skills, and mental illness
50
What are neurotransmitters
chemicals involved in communication among brain cells
51
Lower-quality parenting is associated with
Lower ability to regulate attention
52
Prolonged sleep promotes changes in the maturation of the
Hippocampus
53
Sociocultural Context
The physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up a child's environment
54
What four factors can lead children from a family to turn out differently?
1. Genetic differences
2. Differences in treatment by parents and others
3. Differences in reactions to similar experiences
4. Different choices of environment
55
What is the active child?
as children grow they increasingly choose activities and friends for themselves and thus influence their development
56
What does a measure have to have to be useful?
Must be directly relevant to the hypothesis, reliable, and valid
57
Reliability
independent observations of a given behavior are consistent
58
Validity
measure assesses what it is intended to measure
59
Why are Interviews useful?
Revealing children's subjective experience
60
Why are Naturalistic observations useful?
When the primary goal is to describe how children behave in their everyday environment
61
Why are Structured observations useful?
When the main goal is to describe how different children react to an identical situation
62
How does correlation and causation differ?
Correlation indicates the degree to which two variables are associated
Causation indicates that changing the value of one variable will change the value of the other
63
Interrater Reliability
Amount of agreement in the observation of different rates who witness the same behavior
64
External Validity
The degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
65
Cumulative Risk
Accumulation of disadvantages over years of development
66
Epigenesis
The emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development
67
Gametes (germ cells)
reproductive cells- egg and sperm- that contain only half the genetic material of all other cells in the body
68
Meiosis
cell division that produces gametes
69
Conception
union of egg and sperm- fertilization
70
Zygote
a fertilized egg cell
71
What are the four developmental processes that transform a zygote from embryo to fetus?
Mitosis: cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells
Cell Migration: newly formed cells move away from the point of origin
Cell differentiation: cells start to specialize in structure and function
Apoptosis: genetically programmed cell death
72
Fetal hand plate
The role of apoptosis is seen in the development of the hand which requires the death of the cells between the ridges of the hand plate for the fingers to separate
73
What happens in trimester 1 week 1 of Prenatal Development
Zygote travels from the fallopian tube to the womb and embeds in the uterine lining
74
What happens in trimester 1 weeks 2-3 of Prenatal Development
The embryo forms three layers, which become the nervous system and skin, muscles, bones, circulatory system, digestive system, lungs, and glands, the neural tube develops
75
What happens in trimester 1 week 4 of Prenatal Development
Neural tube continues to develop into the brain and spinal cord; the primitive heart is visible, as are leg and arm buds
76
What happens in trimester 1 weeks 5-9 of Prenatal Development
Facial features differentiate, rapid brain growth occurs, internal organs form, fingers and toes, sexual differentiation
77
What happens in trimester 1 weeks 10-12 of Prenatal Development
The heart develops, the spine and ribs develop more, and the brain forms divisions
78
What happens in trimester 2 weeks 13-24 of Prenatal Development
Lower body growth, genitalia, hairy out covering, facial expressions, fetal movements
79
What happens in trimester 3 weeks 25-38 of Prenatal Development
The fetus triples in size, brain, and lungs develop for survival outside of the womb, visual and auditory systems, learning and behaviors
80
Neural Tube
a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord
81
Amniotic sac
a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus
82
Placenta
a support organ for the fetus that permits the exchange of materials carried in the bloodstreams of the fetus and the mother
Protects embryo from dangerous toxins
83
Umbilical cord
a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta
84
Identical twins
Result from the splitting of the zygote
The same set of genes
Monozygotic
85
Fraternal twins
The result when two eggs are released in fallopian tubes at the same time
Half their genes in common
Dizygotic
86
When does fetal movement start?
5-6 weeks after conception
Hiccups, swallowing, movement of limbs, fingers
87
Sight in the womb
Minimal; fetal preferences
88
Touch in the womb
Contact with parts of the body; grasping umbilical cord, rubbing face, sucking thumb
89
Taste in the womb
Can detect flavors in amniotic fluid
90
Smell in the womb
Amniotic fluid takes odor from what the mother eats; phylogenetic continuity
91
Hearing in the womb
Responds to various sounds from at least 6 months
92
Habituation
A form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation; seen at 30 weeks gestation in visual and auditory stimuli
93
Dishabituation
The introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interests following habituation to a repeated stimulus
94
What are some Environmental Pollutants?
Toxic metals, synthetic hormones, plastic ingredients, pesticides, herbicides
Air and water pollution
Kead (dose-response relationship)
95
Teratogens
a substance that interferes with normal fetal development and causes congenital disabilities, sleeper effects
96
Dose-response radiation
Potential problems depend on how the mother is exposed to the teratogen and for how long
The more exposure, the more at risk the fetus becomes
97
Spina Bifida
a birth defect in which an area of the spinal column doesn't form properly, leaving a section of the spinal cord and spinal nerves exposed through an opening in the back
98
STIs can damage the _____
Infections, such as influenza may lead to __________
Zika virus can lead to __________
CNS
Schizophrenia
Microcephaly (smaller head)
99
What are the potential risks of hazards?
1. SIDS (biological issues, environmental stressors)
2. FASD (alcohol consumption during preg)
100
The 5 steps of the Birth Experience
1. Birth at 38 weeks
2. Uterine muscles contract
3. Baby in a head-down position
4. Mother experiences pain
5. Baby experiences squeezing (reducing the size of head, plates of skull overlap, hormone production, forces amniotic fluid out of lung)
101
What are the dual goals that all cultures pursue?
1. Survival and health of mother and baby
2. Social integration of baby
102
Cesarean (C-section)
Surgical delivery of the baby when birth complications arise
103
How does a healthy baby interact?
Interacts with environment right away
Explores and learns
Influenced by state of arousal
104
In a 24-hour day, how many hours does a newborn spend in each state of arousal?
Active sleep: 8
Quiet sleep: 8
Active awake: 2.5
Alert awake: 2.5
Crying: 2
Drowsing: 1
105
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep
active state; characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed eyelids
Compensates for the lack of visual stimulation in the womb
106
Non-REM sleep
quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements
More regular, slower brain waves, breathing, and heart rate
107
Why do infants cry?
Infants cry to get the attention of caregivers
illness, pain, and hunger
Peaks around 6-8 weeks of age and decreases around 3-4 months of age
108
What is a soothing technique?
Swaddling; wrapping baby snugly in clothes or a blanket
109
Colic
excessive inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason
Ends around 3 months
110
What is the Infant Mortality during the first year after birth?
4.5 per 1000
111
What are the Birth Weights?
Average: 2500-4500grams
LBW: less than 2500 grams
VLBW: less than 1500 grams
112
Premature (preterm) babies
born at or before 37 weeks after conception
Increase in multiple births; infertility treatment
Small for gestational age
113
What are the intervention factors for LBW babies?
Kangaroo care: skin-to-skin
Breastmilk
CCC: cuddles, caressed, and carried
Educational programs
114
Resilience in infants
When an infant thrives, even with hazards such as low birth weight, poverty, or teratogens
115
What is the most common fate of a fertilized egg?
Spontaneous abortion (miscarriage)
116
Multiple-risk model
Infants with several risk factors have a heightened likelihood of continued developmental problems
117
Cephalocaudal development
The pattern of growth in areas near the head develops earlier than in areas farther from the head
118
Embryo
The developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development
119
Sensitive Period
When a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors
120
Genome
Complete set of organisms and genes
121
Gene synthesis
Method for producing DNA
122
Genotypes
Inherited genetic material
123
Phenotype
Observed expression of genetic material (genotype) (e.g. body characteristics and behavior)
124
Development is a combined function of __________ and _________ factors
`Genetic and environmental
125
Parents' genotype-> childs genotype
Transmission of genetic material from parent to offspring
126
Chromosomes
Molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information
127
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in forming an organism and its functions
128
Gene
Sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things
129
Crossing over
The process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to another
Promotes variability among individuals
130
Mutation
a change in a section of DNA
131
What determines an individual's gender?
Sex chromosomes X and Y
132
Endophenotypes
intermediate phenotypes, including brain and nervous systems, that do not involve overt behavior; mediate path between genes and behavior
133
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents the metabolism of amino acid phenylalanine
134
Gene expression: developmental changes
What are Regulator genes?
Genes that control the activity of other genes; turning off and on
135
Gene expression: dominance patterns
What are alleles?
Dominant and recessive alleles Homozygous and heterozygous
136
Polygenic inheritance
the inheritance of a trait governed by more than one genes
137
What are parental contributions to a child's environment?
Gene-environment correlations
Non-transmitted parental alleles (genetic nurture)
138
Children are _____ creators of their environment
active
139
Why do children select certain surroundings and experiences?
Choose ones that match their interests, talents, and personality characteristics
140
Although the structure of DNA remains fixed, what epigenetic mechanisms can alter the functioning of genes?
Create stable changes in their expression
Some changes can be passed on to the next generation; this altering is mediated by the environment
141
Methylation
epigenetic mechanism that silences gene expression most studied in humans
142
Epigenetics literally means...
in addition to changes in genetic sequence
143
What is one answer to why Nature vs Nurture ends?
Epigenetics
144
Behavior genetics
how variation in behavior and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors
145
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
link specific DNA segments with particular traits
146
Genome-wide complex trait analysis (GCTA)
takes estimates of genetic resemblance across large groups of individuals
147
High heritability does not imply _______________
Immutability
148
Heritability estimate
Applies to a particular population living in a particular environment
Where they derived
149
Shared environment
Growing up in the same family, genetic relatedness
150
Non-shared environments
Children could be in the same family with non-shared experiences (inside or outside the family)
151
Outside family factors
Different peer groups, idiosyncratic life events, being bullied
152
Neurons
cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body
153
What are the three main components of a neuron?
1. Cell body
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
154
Cell body
contains basic biological material; keeps neurons functioning
155
Dendrites
neural fibers that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
156
Axon
neural fibers that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
157
Synapses
The places where neurons connect and communicate with each other
158
Glial Cells
Cells in the brain provide critical supportive functions
Form myelin sheath around axons
159
Myelin sheath
fatty sheath that forms around certain axons in the body
Increases speed and efficiency of neuronal information transmission
160
The Cortex
The cerebral cortex constitutes 80% of the human brain
The “gray matter” of the brain
161
What lobes are associated with the cortex?
Occipital lobe: processes visual information
Temporal lobe: spatial processing, auditory information, memory
Frontal lobe: organizing behavior; planning ahead
162
What are the Association areas?
lie between major sensory and motor areas, processing and integrating input from there
163
What are the 4 parts of the cortex?
Frontal cortex: the front part of the cortex assists in planning, self-control, and self-regulation. It is very immature in the newborn
Cerebral cortex: plays a primary role in what is thought to be a humanlike function
Auditory cortex
Visual cortex
164
Cerebral Lateralization
refers to the functional specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres which sensory input from one side of the body goes to the opposite hemisphere of the brain
165
Corpus callosum
a dense tract of nerve fibers
Enables the two hemispheres to communicate
166
Quantitative Behaviour genetics
Uses a variety of family-study designs to generate heritability estimates examining the contributions of heredity and environment for individual differences in a range of traits and behaviors
167
Molecular Behaviour Genetics
Approaches permit the field to move beyond family designs to investigate patterns of genes across large groups of people
168
Synaptogenesis
The process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons
Results in trillions of connections
169
What plays a crucial role in the strengthening or elimination of synapses?
Experience
170
Experience-dependent Plasticity
Neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individuals experiences
171
Experience-expectant Plasticity
the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of species-typical experiences
172
Plasticity
the capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
It makes the developing brain vulnerable to the absence of stimulation at sensitive periods
The ability of the brain to recover from injury depends on the age of the child
173
Secular trends
changes in physical development that have occurred over generations
174
Food neophobia
Young children's unwillingness to eat unfamiliar foods
175
Telomeres
4 cap on chromosomes that unravel which makes more munitions of it replicating, the more it unravels the more errors in replications, things affect the length (with stress it becomes shorter) which causes you to age faster. Telomere length is how quickly you age is passed on genetically
176
Neurogenesis
The proliferation of neurons through cell division
177
Newborn screening
Tests used to screen newborn infants for a range of genetic and non-genetic disorders
178
Recessive Alleles
the alleles of the trait-causing gene are the same
179
Spines
formations on the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrite's capacity to form connections with other neurons
180
Why is Understanding Development Important?
Provides a framework for understanding important phenomena
Raises important questions about human nature
This leads to a better understanding of children
181
Piagetian Theory
Nature and nurture, continuity/discontinuity, the active child
182
Information-processing Theory
Nature and nurture, how change occurs
183
Core-knowledge Theory
Nature and nurture, continuity/discontinuity
184
Sociocultural Theory
Nature and nurture, influence of the sociocultural context, how change occurs
185
Dynamic-systems Theory
Nature and nurture, the active child, how change occurs
186
What are Piaget's four stages?
Sensorimotor (birth-2)
Preoperational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-12)
Formal operational (12+)
187
Main sources of continuity
assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium
188
Piaget's 2 fundamental assumptions
Children are mentally active from birth
Children's mental and physical activity contribute to their development
189
Constructivist approach to cognitive development
Children construct knowledge for themselves in response to their experiences
Children's constructive processes involve
- Generating hypotheses
- Performing experiments
- Drawing conclusions from their observations
190
Sources of discontinuity
Qualitative change
Broad applicability
Brief transitions
Invariant sequence
191
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget term for the way infants think- by using their senses and motor skills
Permanence and caple of deferred imitation
192
A-not-B-task
tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found, rather than in the new location where it was last hidden
193
Preoperational Stage
Children become able to represent their experiences in language, mental imagery, and thought
194
What are the 2 limitations in the Preoperational stage?
Centration
Egocentrism
195
What is Centration?
Focusing on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
196
Egocentrism
Perceiving the world solely from one's own point of view
197
Concrete Operational Stage
Children become able to reason logically about concrete objects and events but have difficulty reasoning in purely abstract terms and succeeding in tasks requiring hypothetical thinking
198
Pendulum Problem
a Piagetian task used to assess cognitive development. The participant is asked to work out what governs the speed of an object swinging on a piece of string
199
Formal Operation Stage
Children become able to think systematically, test hypotheses in valid ways, and reason about hypothetical situations
200
What are the 4 weaknesses of Piaget's theory?
1. The theory is vague about the mechanisms that give rise to children's thinking and produce cognitive growth
2. Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized
3. The theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development
4. The stage model depicts children's thinking as more consistent than it is
201
Piaget wanted to be known as a
epistemologist
202
Information processing theories focus on
Specific mental processes that underlie children's thinking
203
Exploration is the process of ________________ which eventually becomes a __________________
Cognitive pruning
Cognitive process
204
Adapting to out world through____________ and________________
accommodation (i.e. your concept is changed) assimilation (i.e. forced to fit in)
205
Sensormoter stage
Patterns of movement and sensatio
206
Piaget's stages were
observational, not reductive
207
What does the memory system include
working memory
longterm memory
executive funcitoning
208
Working Memory
System for actively attending to, gathering, maintaining, briefly storing, and processing info
209
Long-term Memory
Enduring knowledge accumulated over a lifetime
210
Executive Functioning
Crucial for inhibiting inadvisable actions, enhancing working memory, and flexibly adapting to changing situations
211
Basic cognitive processes allow infants to
Learn and remember from birth onwards
212
What are Piagets Interests
Conceptual (as opposed to physical) category
Permanence
Morality
Meaning and symbolic play
Imitation
213
Encoding
representing in memory information that draws attention or is considered important
214
Constructivism
Theory that infants build increasingly advamced understanding by combining innat knowledge with subsequent experiences
Children explain many phenomena in terms of a few fundamental principles
Children explain events in terms of unobservable causes
215
Imitation -->
learning of self
216
Information-Processing Theories
Theories that focus on the structure of cognitive systems and the mental activities used to deploy attention and memory to solve problems
217
What does information-processing theroies focus on
Focus on
Development of memory
Development of problem solving
218
Cognitive development arises from childrens gradually surmounting processing limitations through
1. Expanding amount of information processed at a time
2. Increasing processing speeds
3. Acquiring new strategies and knowledge
219
How are executive functions applied throughout the lifespan?
Inhibiting tempting actions that can cause difficulties
Enhancing working memory through use of strategies such as repeating a phone number
Being cognitively flexible and taking another persons perspective in an argument (even if it is different)
220
Content knowledge
Increased knowledge improves recall and integration of new information
Prior content knowledge improves encoding, provides useful associations
221
Overlapping waves theory
an information processing approach that emphasizes the variability of childrens thinking
222
Children are not good at planning; planning improves as the_________________ matures
prefrotnal cortex
223
What are examples of domain-specific learning mechanisms
Understanding manipulating other people's thinking
Differentiating between living and nonliving things
Identifying human faces, finding ones way through space
Understanding casues and effects; language
224
Core-knowledge theorists
View children as entering the world equipped with specialized learning mechanisms
225
Nativism
Infants have substantial innate knowledge of evolutionary important domains
- Inanimate objects and thei mechanical
- interactions
- Minds of people and animals capable of goal directed actions
- Numbers
- Spatial layouts
226
Sociocultural Theories
Emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to childrens development
227
Guided Participation
more knowledgable people ornagize activites in ways that allow less knowledgable people to leanr
228
Social Scaffolding
more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at higher level than children could manage on their own
229
Cultural tools
the innumberable products of human ingenuity that enhance thinking
230
Private Speech
Telling themselves aloud what to do
231
Intersubjectivity
mutual understanding that people share during comminication
232
Joint Attention
social partners inentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
233
What are Lev Vygotskys 3 phases of internalized speech?
1. Childrens behaviour is controlled by other peoples statements
2. Childrens behaviour is controlled by their own private speech
3. Childrens behaviour is controlled by internalized private speech (thought), in which they silently tell themselves what to do
234
Important Contributors of the growth problem solving include the development of
Planning and encoding
235
Sociocultural theorists have focused on how the social world ________ ____________________
molds development
236
Sociocultural theories view humans as differening from other animals in their propensity to
teach and their ability to learn from teaching
237
Dynamic-systems theories emphasize
Children are innately motivated to explore the environment
Children have a precise way of problem solving
Infants and toddlers are competent
Other people are important in influencing development
238
The centrality of action
Childrens specific actions contribute to development throughout life
239
Development is a process of
self-oganization
240
Self-oganization involves integrating
attention, memory, emotions, and actions to adapt to a changing environment
241
Soft assembly
as components are ever changing
242
Variation
the use of different behaviours to pursue the same goal
243
Selection
increasing frequent choice of behaviours that are relatively successful in reaching goals
244
Phonemes
small units of meaningful sound
245
Production
the process of speaking
246
Generative
system in whic a finite set of words can be combined to generate an infinite number of sentences
247
Morphemes
smallest units of meaning in a language
248
Syntax
Rules specifying how words from different categoirs can be combined
249
Pragmetics
how language is used
250
Aquiring a language involves the complex systems of
Phonology
Semantics
Syntax
Pragmatics
251
Lanuage is
Species-specific
252
The first pre-rerequisite for languages full-fledged development is
a human brain/environment
Therefore, non-human brains do not learn full-fledged human languages
253
A second pre-requisite for language developemnt is
exposure to language (listening speaking)
254
Infant-directed speech (IDS)
mode of speech used when speaking to infants and toddlers
255
Infants have excellent
Speech-percpetion abilities
256
Symbols
Involve systems of representing our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge, and for communicating them to other people
257
Sensitive period
Early years until around age 5 sensitive for language learning
258
human brain language lateralization
Language is primarily localized in the left hemisphere
259
Bilingual infants learn in the
learn in the womb
Discriminate speech sounds of two languages at same pace of infants learning one
better at using silent talking face to discriminate unfamiliar languages
260
Prosody
the characteristic rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, intonational patterns, etc. with which a language is spoken
261
Categorical Percpetion
The perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories
262
Voice Onset Time (VOT)
The length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating
263
Word Segmentation
The process of discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
264
Distributional Properties
The phenomenon that, in any language, certain sounds are more likely to appear together than are others
265
Babbling
Producing syllables made up of a consonant followed by a vowel (“pa,” “ba,” “ma”) that are repeated in strings (“mamama”)
266
When do infants learn how to communicate with other people including establishing joint attention
During second half of the first year
267
Infants recognize highly familar words at __ months and produce words at __ year
6
1
268
Successful communication requires
Intersubjectivity
Joint attention
269
All current theories agree that there is an interaction between ________ factors and _______________
innate
experience
270
Cross-situational word learning
Determining word meanings by tracking correlations between labels and meanings across scenes and contexts
271
Syntactic bootstrapping
Strategy of using the grammatical structure to infer meaning
272
Telegraphic speech
short utterances that leave out nonessential words; two-word utterances
273
Overregularization
Speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular
274
Narratives
Descriptions of past events that have the basic structure of a story and can be produced by 5 years of age
275
Collective monologues
content of each child’s turn has little or nothing to do with what other child has just said
276
Development of language skills beyond ages 5 or 6 years
Sustaining a conversation
Complex grammar mastered
Appreciation of multiple meanings of words
Better comprehension
277
6-year-olds know _______ words
10,000
College students: 150,000 words
278
5th graders know _________ words
40,000
279
College students know _________ words
150,000
280
Noam Chomsky proposed that all humans are born with
Universal Grammer
281
Rene Descartes and the triagle
the baby constructs the triangle, without ever having seen the triangle
282
Human interchange is completely
“creative and unbounded”
283
Language and SES
Number of words children know --> related to number of words they hear --> linked to their caregivers’ vocabularies
284
What is the relationship between gestures and vocabulary?
infants who gesture more have larger vocabularies
285
Young children have__________ with dual representation; ability to exploit symbolic artifacts
difficulty
286
Childrens form of drawing people take what form?
Tadpole
287
Connectionism
computational modelling apprach that emphasizes the stimultaneous activity of numerous interconnected processing units
288
Overextension
overly broad interpretation of the meaning of a word
289
Pragmatic cues
Aspects of the social context used for word learning
