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Hughes - Managing Organizational Performance Test 1 > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Define Validity

A

The strength of our conclusions, inferences, or propositions.

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2
Q

Internal Validity

A

Are there factors that could affect the outcome of the experiment?
- Concern is flaws within the study itself. Was it carried out as designed?
- Does the IV (and not some other variable) really cause the change in the DV?

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3
Q

External Validity

A

Refers to our ability to generalize the results of our study to other persons, settings, or times.

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4
Q

Define Variable

A

A variable is a measure representation of an abstract construct.

-It can differ in magnitude:
- A measurable characteristic that varies
- Age, intelligence, income

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5
Q

Define Independent Variable

A

The variable being manipulated.

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6
Q

Define Dependent Variable

A

The variable affected by the change in the independent variable.

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7
Q

Define Control Variables

A

Other factors that could affect the outcome of the experiment.

  • These must be held constant to have a fair test.
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8
Q

Define Control Group

A

The control group is a selected group that does not receive the intervention or treatment.

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9
Q

Control Variable

A

Control Variables are factors that could affect the outcome of the experiment so they have to remain constant across all groups.

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10
Q

What is Regression toward the mean?

A

States that if a variable is extreme the first time you measure it, it will be closer to the average the next time you measure it.

  • It can result in wrongly concluding that an effect is due to a treatment when it is due to chance.
  • Pick the worst places, treat and then see the affect. Be careful with conclusins
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11
Q

Randomised Control Trials (RCT) - Strengths

A

Those eligible are randomly assigned into one of two groups.

  • The intervention group.
  • The control group.
  • Remove potential Bias:
    *Every subject is as likely as any other to be assigned to the treatment or control group.
  • Creates balance in the groups on factors in the study, whether those factors are measured or not.
  • This allows accurate analysis of the effect of an intervention.
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12
Q

Define Effect Size

A

Quantifying the difference between the two groups.

Provides a measure of the “size of the effect” from the intervention.

The effect size indicates the magnitude of the observed effect or relationship is due to chance.

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13
Q

What is Statistical Significance?

A

Tells you how likely a pattern in your data is due to chance.

*Indicates the likelihood that an event is due to chance
* .05 findings has a five percent chance of not being true

Not the only thing:

*Helps you understand how rare the results are
* Does not tell you if the experiment was well conducted or well controlled

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14
Q

Define Paradigm

A

A paradigm is a model for observation and understanding that shapes both what we see and how we understand it.

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15
Q

Explain Rarity of discoer/ blind spots.

A

The rarity of discover/ blind spots:
-Can create blind spots
* A failure to see one’s basic assumptions about how things operate.
* The result discoveries are rare because expectations cloud our vision.

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16
Q

Observations about paradigms (Barker).

A
  • Paradigms are common
  • Paradigms are useful
  • A warning: Sometimes paradigms become the paradigm
  • The people who create new paradigms are often outsiders
  • Advantages of young/ outsiders
  • They don’t “know what can’t be done”
  • They do not understand the subtilities of old rules
  • They have no investment in old rules
  • No peep pressure to keep the old model
  • Paradigm pioneers must be courageous
  • You can choose to change paradigms
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17
Q

What measuring things get you

A

Track progress of efforts - judge success
* If you can’t measure it, you can’t improve it

Aline activities with goal

Garner support and credibility

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18
Q

What is the Impact Domain?

A

How might intended police effects on the environment be measured?

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19
Q

What is the Process Domain?

A

How might police know if they are doing their works as they should?

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20
Q

What is the Community Assessment Domain?

A

How might public assessment of police performance be monitored?

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21
Q

What is Organization Health Domain?

A

How might police department know if their employees are satisfied with their work?

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22
Q

What is the Community Context Domain?

A

How might police organizations monitor changes in the work environment that impede or promote their ability to achieve organizational goals?

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23
Q

Bratton - Impact on crime with?

A

Better management

Higher expectations

Better startegies

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24
Q

Public confidence matters - Information (Kelling)

A

Acts that do not result in arrest or documentation often are not counted but may be very good for police departments and community.

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25
Q

Similarities between public and private organizations

A

Some things are the same:

Entrusted with assets and responsibilities

Human resources issues

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26
Q

Differences between public and private organizations

A
  • Source of money
  • Citizens, clients, politicians…decide that there is a result that can be done by government and it is worth paying for
  • Discretion
  • Less discretion to define organizational goals and direction
  • Authorizing authority - more drivers and more involved than shareholders
  • Performance management
  • Profit vs. measures of value other than revenue
  • difficult to measure and show value in public sector
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27
Q

Goal/ idea of public value

A

A normative and practical guide for those who are in positions of executive authority in government

Public managers are to deploy publicly owned assets to create public value
* Purposefulness in management - Public value clarifies for managers what they are trying to produce/ are accountable for.

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28
Q

What are the 3 parts of the Strategic Triangle?

A

Public Value

Operational Capacity

Legitimacy Support

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29
Q

Strategic Triangle - Public Value?

A

What is the specific improvement expected from a plan or strategy

  • Improved lives some how
  • Values are fuzzy
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30
Q

Strategic Triangle - Legitimacy & Support?

A

Practically you need the support of people who can provide legitimacy and resources

This given by “authorizing authority”

Not enough that manager has an idea of public value, others must share this too

  • Mayor, council, union, politically powerful, regulatory authorities…
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31
Q

Strategic Triangle - Operational Capacity?

A

The actual ability to create public value

What is the location and character of the operational capacity required to achieve my goals?

Not just the resources you control:
* Often need others
* Citizens, media, sister organizations…

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32
Q

Strategic Triangle - How it interacts

A

All 3 matter all the time

Each of the 3 parts of the triangle matter, they are interrelated and influence each other

Goal/Key is to find the fit between the organization and its environment

It is more than satisfying demands, its responding to them in a way that creates value

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33
Q

What is the strategic triangle model used for?

A

Designed to help public sector leaders develop strong, achievable value propositions
* Helps you diagnose your local environment

Leaders are inclined to limit their thinking to the “what do do” (Public value circle of the triangle)

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34
Q

What is mobilization?

A

Mobilization is the process by which a legal system acquires it’s cases.
* How the law is set in motion

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35
Q

Why is the mobilization of law important?

A

It is how the law is set in motion

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36
Q

Define Reactive mobilization

A

Reactive- a citizen sets the legal process in motion
* Calls for service

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37
Q

Define Proactive mobilization

A

Proactive - the state initiates legal action upon it’s own authority

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38
Q

How mobilization type impact upon - Legal Intelligence

A

The knowledge a legal system has about the law violations
* Reactive system has responsibility on the citizen
* So what they can’t see, ignore, mistake, or don’t think is
worth it.

Also, reactive system cases come in one at a time and this tends to hide the impact of macro-level forces of crime
* Can hide relations among and between cases
* Need to collect data and look for patterns

In a reactive system, citizens mobilize during a crime or after
* Prevent is not strong in a reactive system

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39
Q

How mobilization type impact upon - the Avaibility of Law

A

NOT the access of legal system to cases but now the access of citizens to the law
* The reactive system is an entrepreneurial model of law
* Each citizen will voluntarily and rationally pursue their own I
interest

The proactive system is more of a social welfare model
* What is the legal good for the citizenry being defined and imposed by government

Anti-mobilization norms
* Norms that discourage mobilizing social control against status equals
* These have a larger impact in a reactive system

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40
Q

The Organization of discretion

A

Legal decision-making allows the agent some margin of freedom or discretion

A reactive system puts a great deal of discretion in the hands of ordinary citizens
* Moral standards of citizens shape case inputs
* Citizens engage unknowingly in selective law enforcement

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41
Q

The Organization of discretion - Possibility of discrimination

A

Where a system is reactive or proactive does not determine if there is any possible discrimination
* The nature of mobilization shapes where the possible
discrimination may come from

A reactive system can allow average citizens to invoke the law according to their own prejudices
* “Karens,” napping in dorm, sitting in Starbucks, BBQ, Birdwatching

A proactive system can allow state actors to invoke the law according to their own prejudices

42
Q

Discuss Legal Change

A

The law is dynamic

One of the things that can change the law is a moral change in the population
* A proactive system is not as easily adaptable to changes in
citizen morality
* A reactive system absorbs every change that comes about in
the population
* Changes in reactive mobilizations change what the police are
sent to

Another way the law can change is by planned action
* A reactive system may be harder to change in planned
fashion - more resistant to centrally directed change
* A proactive system is a more willing instrument of planned
change for it is under the authority of the planners themselves

43
Q

Reporting in the Black community - Findings/ implications on CFS (Mobilization) Where & how long; violence levels

A

All neighborhoods: Total calls slight upward trend for all observations for observation period

No shift immediately after event

After publication: 911 calls declined significantly (Net controls)

The effect Diminished over time and returned to normal

Violent crime calls declined significantly after as well

AREAS

Declined lasted longer in Black areas
* Here decline was large & durable (over a year)

Estimated impact on CFS
* Estimated across all call types: 22,200 calls in the year the reporting of the incident. 56% decline occurred in Black areas
* CFS regarding traffic accidents increased: indication no larger force for general decline

44
Q

Define Cognitive Biases

A

Cognitive Biases are systematic deviations from rationality in judgement or decision-making

45
Q

Define Confirmation Bias

A

Confirmation Bias is the tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs and ignore or distort data contradicting them.

46
Q

What is Fundamental Attribution Error?

A

Focus on how we judge the behaviors of others

When we see someone doing something, we tend to think it relates to their personality rather than the situation the person might be in.

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which an individual’s behavior is determined by his/her abiding personal characteristics, attitudes, or beliefs and correspondingly, to minimize the influence of the surrounding situation on that behavior.

47
Q

What is Bias Blind Spot?

A

We are less likely to detect bias in ourselves than in others

We have the impression that we see issues and events objectively

48
Q

What is the Anchoring Effect?

A

Our tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered, particularly if that information presented is in numeric form when making decision, estimates, or predictions.

49
Q

Explain Representativeness Heuristic

A

This happens when people answer a question of probability or causation. i.e. how likely is that object A belongs to class B? By asking about the extent to which A resembles B

The representativeness heuristic involves judging the likelihood of something by considering how well it matches a particular category or prototype

50
Q

Define Projection Bias

A

Misperception of the commonness of one’s beliefs, values, abilities, and behaviors - usually in the direction of overestimating how common they are

We come to see our own values and choices as relatively typical and appropriate and we view alternative responses as unusual and even deviant

51
Q

Explain Choice Architecture / Behavioral Interventions

A

The idea is that decisions making and behavior is influenced in the systematic ways by subtle, seemingly insignificant changes in the decision making context

Change to decision making context alters decisions
“Choice Architecture”
* The design of the environment which people make choices
* how information/ environment is presented to you

We can improve decision making by structuring choice architecture

The presentation matters

Opting in vs. opting out

52
Q

Explain Nudges

A

Any aspect of the choice architecture that alters people’s behavior in a predictable way without significantly changing their economic incentives

Interventions aimed at influencing behavior without limiting or forcing options

Paternalistic
* Automatic opt-in for employee participation in a company retirement plan

Numdges are being used in CJS
* Crime prevention, text prompts for court
* UK has “behavioral insight team”

53
Q

Behavioral Nudges - Court

A

Bahavioral nudges reduce FTA for court

Many people fail to appear

We tend to see this as intentional so try to deter this through sanctions
* Bench Warrants

But can some of this be explained by simple human error- forgot/ not clear

Nudges
* To make sufficiently salient (see it/ remember it)

54
Q

Behavioral Nudge - Court Redesigned Summons

A

Two large-scale studies in NYC evaluation interventions to make defendants more aware of court information

Redesigned the summons form that defendants received for low-level offenses
* Old summons listed court information at the bottom of the form below less important information
* New form moves court information to the top of the ticket where people are more likely to see it
* Also clearly states in bold typeface on the front of the form that missing the assigned court date will lead to a warrant

55
Q

Behavioral Nudge - Text Messages

A

Send text message to highlight critical court information for defendants in the week leading up to the court date

Assigned to one of four groups:
* Control: No text
* Consequences: Court info/ potential warrant & arrest
* Plan-making: Mark calendar, look up directions, set alarm
* Combination: Mix of consequences & plan making

56
Q

Behavioral Nudge - Sample-Impact New Form

A

All 323,922 summonses issued in NYC between 1/1/16 and 7/14/17
* Every summons had a serial number - could match serial numbers to old or new forms

Impact of the new form
* The new forms reduced failure to appear by 6.2 percentage points, or by 13.2% relative to the 47% baseline FTA rate in the estimation bandwidth

57
Q

Behavioral Nudge - Impact of Texts

A

Relative to 37.9% failure rate in the control group, receiving any text message reduced FTA by 8 percentage points with represents a 21% relative reduction

Consequences & combination were the most effective

Plan-making also significantly reduced failures

58
Q

Behavioral Nudge - Overall Impact

A

These nudges helped avoid at least 30,000 warrants being issued over 3 years and resulted in approximately 20,000 people having their cases fully dismissed instead of having an open warrant

59
Q

Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting - Results

A

Email survey retired 1770 NYPD - 48.2% response

Confident major crimes declined by 80%
* 58.2% said no

Personal knowledge of making numbers look better
* changes from no to yes from periods 1 & 2 to period 3.
* Increase in Bloomberg era

60
Q

Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting - Pressure

A

The pressure to reduce index crime steadily increased with significant differences for each time category
* 4.46, 5.45 and 6.36

The pressure to downgrade index crime also increased over the time periods
* 3.77, 4.16, and 5.63

1981-994 & 1994-2001 Not statistically different

2002 onward significantly different from previous eras

More pressure in the last era

61
Q

Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting - Accuracy

A

Pre-Compstat low mean 5.25

Increased pressure to properly report when first Compstat is introduced 5.75

Does not hold for Kelly/ Bloomberg eras, reverts back to 5.28

62
Q

Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting - Time to Retirement

A

More knowledge in recent years (highest pressure)

Personal knowledge of manipulation
* 30.3, 34.5 to 55.5 (Bloomberg era)

63
Q

Cost of Crime - Explain Accounting Based

A

Attempts to identify all the costs associated with crime that individuals and society bear and place a dollar value on the costs
* Victim reports, hospital records, workers comp, first responder costs, mental health treatment costs, productivity losses, and incarceration costs

Have to use proxy for tangible costs
* Lawsuit awards - value of pain and suffering
* So less precise

64
Q

Cost of Crime - Contingent Valuation

A

Elicit information about individual willingness to pay for crime reduction using survey questions
* What is this non-market good worth to you?
* Average willingness to pay for this thing

Respondents are typically asked whether they would support a hypothetical referendum in which they find a program providing specific benefits in exchange for tax increases of a given amount

A survey might ask individuals how much they are willing to pay for a reduction in crime
* 30% reduction in gun crime. What are you wiling to pay to
have this?
* Then infer cost of crime based on these resonses

65
Q

Contingent Valuation - Strengths

A

Can capture the value of hard to measure things

Shows public preferences

Shows differences among population segments

Gives an indication of value/ cost before crime/ event happens

66
Q

Contingent Valuation - Concerns

A

Hypothetically willing to pay is not the same as actually paying
* They may be willing to pay beyond their means

Surveys often have a low response rate - representative sample

Some may have poorly defined preferences

67
Q

Cost of Crime - Hedonic Valuation

A

The idea that the price of a good is related to a number of characteristics - some of which are intrinsic to the good and some of which are extrinsic to it

Hedonic methodology shows that price of a good is determined not only by its physical qualities but also by its hedonic characteristics such as it’s location, amenities, or environment

68
Q

Hedonic Valuation - Example

A

Take a house that is close to a scenic landscape. The proximity of this house to a scenic view increases it value relative to a similar house in another less favorable location. This in turn allows for an indirect determination of the value of the environment amenity itself by comparing the different prices attached to the two houses.

Compare the price of otherwise similar homes in neighborhoods with different exposure to crime

You can then infer the cost of crime exposure by the price differences

69
Q

hedonic Valuation - Advantages

A

Uses actual consumer behavior in the market place to develop estimates, which avoids any of the biases introduced by contingent valuation

Captures tangible and intangible costs in the mind of the consumer
* Not hypothetical

70
Q

Cost in Anticipation of crime - Tangible/ Intangible

A

Tangible
Expenditures to reduce the likelihood of victimization (i.e. purchasing security alarms)
Government crime prevention programs

Intangible
Avoidance behavior (i.e. avoiding people & places)
Fear of crime

71
Q

Costs as direct consequence of crime - Tangible/ Intangible

A

Tangible
Lost wages & productivity because of victimization
Cost to recover or repair property

Intangible
Pain, suffering, lost quality of life because of victimization
Second generation costs (i.e. increased likelihood of same victims becoming offenders)

72
Q

Costs in response to crime - Tangible/ Intangible

A

Tangible
Criminal justice costs like police investigations & incarceration
Cost to defend accused offenders in court

Intangible
Psychological cost to offender’s family & community
Overdeterrence costs (i.e. accusing innocent individuals, restricting legitimate activity in a community)

73
Q

What are the 3 general types of costs of crime

A

Cost in anticipation of crime
*Security measures, crime prevention programs, insurance administration costs

Costs as direct consequence of crime
* Victims lost wages, employer lost productivity, victim medical/ mental health care, lost property and/ or insurance costs, funeral costs

Costs in response to crime
* Police investigation, prosecution, court, victims services, incarceration

74
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Reported Crime

A

One statistically significant difference among the 51 comparisons drawn between reactive, control, and proactive
* Other sex crimes - molestation & exhibition - not all that is treatable by patrol

75
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Victimization

A

No statistically significant difference in crime in any of the 69 comparisons made between reactive, control, and proactive beats

76
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Arrest Patterns

A

No statistically difference in 27 comparisions

77
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Rates of Crime

A

Five of the 48 statistically significant but no consistent pattern in the five - some in control, some proactive, and one in reactive

78
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Citizen Fear of Crime

A

Citzin fear of crime was not significantly affected by the change in level of RPP
* 5 out 60 - 4 reactive and 1 in proactive

79
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Proactive Measures

A

Measures taken by citizens against victimization were not significantly affected by variations in the level of routine policing

80
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Business Proactive Measures

A

Did not show significant differences due to changes in the level of routine patrol
* 21 Comarisions
* Telephone survey not the best - don’t like revealing security measures over the phone

81
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Attitudes Toward the Police

A

Citizens attitudes toward the police were not significantly affected by changes in the patrol level

111 comparisons with 16 instances of significant
* 5 reactive, 10 control beats, and 1 proactive

82
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Business Attitudes Toward the Police

A

Not significantly affecteed

48 comparisons, non significant
* Poice-citizen encounters: citizen attitudes not significantly different
* Police officer attitudes not significantly different by ara of assignment

83
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Response Time

A

The amount of response time taken by police in answering calls for service was not significantly affected by the variations in the level of routine patrol

42 comparisons, one significant finding: number of officers at the scene: More in reactive beats

Variations in patrol had no significant effect upon traffic accidents

84
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Summary Findings

A

Decreasing or increasing routine preventive patrol within the range tested in this experiment had no effect on crime, citizen fear of crime, community attitudes toward the police on deliver of police services, police response time or traffic accidents

One other attempt has been made to replicate the Kansas City study, in Albuquerque, NM which yielded similar results

85
Q

Kansas City Patrol Experiment - Conclusions

A

Not that routine patrol is of no value
* Citizens, business persons, and criminals all assumed status quo

Does show there is slack in the system
* Perhaps need some: but flexible and adding 2-3 times as much does not get you much more
* Dosage: High/ low relative to geography: Chemo vs. radiation

86
Q

Patrol Staffing San Diego: 1 or 2 Officer Units - Findings

A

Overall performance for type and frequency of calls for service and officer initiated activities were about the same

Two officer units produced more traffic ciatations

One officer were more likely to result in arrest and formal report

No difference in those arrested by being held to answer by type of unit

Fewer complaints by citizens for one officer units

Two officer unit faster on calls but not enough to make up the cost of having two officers

One officer unit produced equivalent officer initiated activity

One officer less resisting arrest, equal on assaults and injuries

Same in auto accidents and miles driven (risk exposure to accident)

Officer have preference of two person units

87
Q

Criminal Investigation Process: Clearance Rates - Findings

A

Not a great measure of effectiveness
* Variation in practice across departments in practice and definitions makes comparisons impossible

These definitions/ rules change over time within departments too

Administrative discretion high-subject to manipulation

Most important factors in solving cases:
* The single most important determinant of whether or not a case will be solved is the information the victim or witnesses supplies to the responding officer
* Role of responding officer and witnesses in solving cases

88
Q

Types of Responses Police Problems Receive - Emotional Response

A

Programs which “intuitively seem like they should work,” “common sense”

89
Q

Types of Responses Police Problems Receive - Political Response

A

Programs implemented as a political mandate, usually in response to a high profile problem

90
Q

Types of Responses Police Problems Receive - Affective Response

A

Programs based on tested research with respoect to either “cause and effect” or “correlations”

91
Q

Response Time & Citizen Evaluation of Police

A

Satisfaction with the responding officer
* Citizen satisfaction with response time was the best predictor of citizen satisfaction with responding officer

Attitudes toward the police in general
* Satisfaction with the responding officer was best predictor of general attitude toward the police
* Age and race were also associated with general attitudes

92
Q

Response Time Relationship to Arrest for Part 1 Index Crimes

A

Police response time had no effect upon on-scene arrest for 70 to 85% of part 1 index crimes because most (62.3%) were discovered after completed

93
Q

Response Time Relationship to Arrest for Property Crimes

A

“Discovered crime” - mobilization 10-15 minutes

Citizens “involved” in a crime-time to mobilize
* 4 to 7 minutes - burglary, larceny, or auto theft

94
Q

Why do citizens take so long to mobilize?

A

Apathy - don’t want to get involved, not worth it

No use to police - no evidence or police would not think it’s important

Contact security (alternative)

Telephone another person

Observing the scene - more data to calculate seriousness

Injury

95
Q

Citizens mobilization findings

A

Decision-making delays by citizens appear more important than access to phone

Victims are in stress, trying to make sense of what is happening or just happened

96
Q

Million Dollar Murray

A

Chronic Homelessness

A small number of chronics contribute greatly to the overall problem
* Small number = much of the cost
* Consume vast amounts of resources/ create much of the cost of the problem

97
Q

Normal Distribution

A

Bulk of the problem situated in the middle

The normal distribution is the state in which the variability of sample data points is similarly distributed before and after the mean value

More sample data is present around the mean value

98
Q

Power Law Distribution

A

AKA Long Tail Distribution

The activity is not in the middle but at one extreme

There are a small number of people who are Hyper High Performers, a swath of people who are good performers and a smaller number of people who are low performers

It essentially accounts for a much wider variation in performance among the sample

Substantial amounts of an issue/ problem may be due to a few hard cases

The hard cases are hard

99
Q

Political and moral impediments to solutions to problems with a power law distribution - Economic vs moral notions

A

Economic vs moral notions

Efficiency vs. fairness
* Treat all people in need the same vs impact the problem with differential treatment

100
Q

Political and moral impediments to solutions to problems with a power law distribution - Political Views

A

Political Views

Special treatment for people who do not deserve special treatment

Emphasis on efficiency over fairness suggest the cold number-crunching of cost benefits anaylsis

101
Q

Problems with Prevention - Why is it not liked?

A

Boring (not action)

Lacks satisfaction (nonevent)

Methodical and structured (limited discretion)

Hughes - Managing Organizational Performance Test 1 (1 decks)

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