Terms: Palynology

Question 1

pollen rain

Answer 1

The pollen grains and spores that fall on a specific site.

Question 2

pollen kitt

Answer 2

• The pollen kitt is the waxes and other compounds that coat the pollen grain.
• The pollen kitt obscures important morphological characteristics of the exine that need to be visible for accurate identification.

Question 3

Anemophilous

Answer 3

• Wind disseminated
• Anemophilous species rely on the production of vast quantities of pollen grains - millions per plant per year - that travel great distances to reach the female receptive surface (stigma) of the flower
• Anemophilous species are said to be over-represented in the pollen rain (and in the fossil record) due to their prolific reproductive strategy.
• The pollen grains of many anemophilous species have walls that are modified to enhance buoyancy.

Question 4

Zoophilous

Answer 4

• Animal disseminated
• Zoophilous species “pay” animals to transport the pollen to the stigma with nectar, scents, and colorful flowers.
• Fewer pollen grains are needed for this strategy to be successful, and their aerodynamic properties are relatively unimportant
• The pollen grains of zoophilous species are said to be under-represented in the pollen rain (and in the fossil record) due to their more conservative reproductive strategy.
• The pollen grains of many zoophilous species have rods, threads, or sticky cotaings to improve dissemination of several grains by one animal.

Question 5

Acetolysis

Answer 5

• The chemical process by which the nucleus and organelles of the pollen grain, as well as the pollen kitt, are removed.
• This process exposes morphological details on the exine of the pollen grain which are used to identify the plant species from which the pollen grain
• Un-acetolized pollen grains look very different from actolized pollen grains because the internal structures and pollen kitt scatter light. This makes precise identification difficult/impossible.

Question 6

Exine

Answer 6

• Pollen grains typically develop a resistant layer outside the cell wall. This wall is called an exine.
• The exine protects the vital nucleus from physical damage and drying during transport.
• The exine is chemically resistant to acetolysis, so it survives the process.
• The structure and sculpture of the exine are used to identify species of pollen.
  
  • Structural features refers to the make-up of the wall; the presence, absence, and thickness of the various layers
    
    • Structural features of pollen are viewed with a TEM
  • Sculptural elements are those which protrude beyond the outermost continuous layer of the wall
    
    • Sculptural features of pollen are viewed with light microscopy and SEM

Question 7

Microscopic Features for ID

Answer 7

1. size and shape of the pollen grain
2. shape, number, and arrangement of wall apertures
3. structure and ornamentation of exine surface

• Keep in mind that the size and shape of the pollen grain alone cannot be reliably used for ID because pollen cleaning procedures can distort these measurements.

Question 8

vesiculate

Answer 8

• Vesiculate pollens have air sacs that increase buoyancy.
• There are usually two air sacs per grain at the bottom of the grain, but sometimes the grain has a doughnut-shaped air sac at the bottom of the grain.

Question 9

polyplicate

Answer 9

• Polyplicate pollen grains have numerous sharp meridional edges

Question 10

trilete spores

and

trichotomocolpate pollen

Answer 10

• Trilete spores and trichotomocolpate pollen have three furrows joined at one pole
• Trilete (Trichotomocolpate) pollens are found in the Cocos (Coconut), Sphagnum (Peat Moss), Pteridophyta (Fern), and Lycopodium (Clubmoss)

Question 11

inaperturate pollen

and

inaperturate spores

Answer 11

• Inaperturate pollen and inaperturate spores do not have air sacs or visible openings in the exine
• Inaperturate pollens are found in the Cupressaceae (Cedar), Equisetum (Horsetails), Larix (Tamarack), Pseudotsuga (Douglas Fir)), and Salicaceae (Cottonwood and Aspen)

Question 12

monoporate

Answer 12

• Monoporate pollens have one pore without any associated furrows
• Monoporate pollens are found in the Gramineae (Grasses) primarily but also in the Taxodiaceae (Redwood and Cypress)

Question 13

monocolpate

and

monolete

Answer 13

• Monocolpate pollens have one furrow without an associated pore or transverse furrow
• Monocolpate pollens are primarily found in the Liliaceae (Lily Family)

Question 14

syncolpate

Answer 14

• Syncolpate pollens have fused furrows
• Syncolpate pollens are found in the Primulaceae (Primrose Family), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus), and Berberidaceae (Barberry and oregon Grape)

Question 15

dicolpate

Answer 15

• Dicolpate pollens have two furrows without any associated pores or transverse furrows

Question 16

tricolpate

Answer 16

• Tricolpate pollens have three furrows without any associated pores or transverse furrows

Question 17

stephanocolpate

Answer 17

• Pollen with 4 or more furrows centered on the equator

Question 18

pericolpate

Answer 18

• colpi distributed more or less evenly over surface of spheroidal grain

Question 19

heterocolpate

Answer 19

• Pollens with multiple furrows, some with pores

Question 20

tricolporate

Answer 20

• Pollen with three furrows, each with a pore

Question 21

stephanocolporate

Answer 21

• Pollen with 4 or more equatorial furrows, each with a pore

Question 22

lophate

and

fenestrate

Answer 22

• Lophate pollen has a surface that has large, window-like openings (lacunae), the tectum continuous across
• Fenestrate pollen has large, window-like openings (fenestrae) on the surface in a regular arrangement

Question 23

diporate

Answer 23

• Pollen with two pores and no associated furrows

Question 24

triporate

Answer 24

• Triporate pollens have three pores without any associated furrows
• Triporate pollens are very common so they will be sub-divided by surface ornamentation or other dominant feature
• Some species that normally have triporate pollens may show four pores

Question 25

stephanoporate

Answer 25

• Stephanoporate pollens have more than three pores and all pores are located equatorially
• Stephanoporate pollens are found in the Campanulaceae (Colorado Bluebells), Corylaceae (Alder),Onagraceae, and in Ulmaceae (Elm)

Question 26

periporate

Answer 26

• Pollen has numerous pores distributed more or less evenly over spheroidal pollen grain

Question 27

monad

Answer 27

• Pollen grain appearing single

Question 28

dyad

Answer 28

• Two pollen grains adhering together and dispersed as a unit

Question 29

tetrad

Answer 29

• Four pollen grains adhering together and dispersed as a unit

Question 30

polyad

Answer 30

• More than 8 pollen grains adhering together and dispersed as a unit

Question 31

Sculptural Elements

and

Patterns of the Pollen Exine

Answer 31

• Psilate: surface smooth with no discernable sculpturing
• Scabrate: small sculptural elements, < 1 µm in any direction
• Verrucate: elements as broad as, or broader than, high, >= 1 µm wide
• Gemmate: diameter of elements equal to, or greater than, height; constricted base, >= 1 µm wide
• Baculate: elements post or rod-like, higher than broad, >= 1 µm long
• Clavate: elements higher than broad with a constricted base or club-shaped tip, >= 1 µm long
• Echinate: elements in form of pointed spines, sometimes called spinulate (with spinules) if between 1 - 3 µm long
• Rugulate: horizontally elongated elements in an irregular pattern
• Striate: horizontally elongated elements in a more or less parallel pattern
• Reticulate: horizontally elongated elements forming a net-like pattern of lacunae (holes) and muri (walls)