Terms Full Flashcards
1
Q
Epic poem
A
lengthy narrative poem that tells the heroic deeds and adventures of a legendary hero. Characteristics: Heroic Protagonist (Beowulf), Quest, Journey (Kill Grendel, Grendel’s Mother), Supernatural Elements (Grendel), Elevated Style and Language, Cultural and Moral Themes (Anglo-saxon values), Invocation of the Muse
2
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Epic hero
A
character that embodies the ideals of his culture. Characteristics: Noble Birth, Superhuman strength and courage, Pride, Loyalty and Devotion, Morality, Divine Assistance (Fate aids Beowulf), Fame and Glory
3
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Alliteration
A
literary device characterized by the repetition of initial consonant sounds in close proximity within a line of poetry or prose.
4
Q
Kenning
A
use of a compound metaphorical phrase as a substitute for a single, usually more straightforward, noun. E.g.: Bone-house - human body, Battle-sweat - blood shed in combat, Shield-bearer - knight, protector, defender
5
Q
Caesura
A
a strong pause or break in the middle of a line of verse. Plays a significant role in shaping the rhythm and structure of the lines. E.g. “Hwæt. We Gardena” (first line of beowulf)
6
Q
Variation
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poetic technique that involves the use of synonyms or different words and phrases to express similar ideas. (Grendel - demon - shadow of death)
7
Q
Formulaic tradition
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recurring patterns, phrases, and expressions that are used repeatedly throughout the poem. (Mead-hall)
8
Q
End-stop line
A
lines of poetry in which the sentence, phrase comes to a complete stop, often with a period, comma, or semicolon at the end.
9
Q
Run-on lines
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occur when the sentence extends beyond the end of the poetic line without a pause or a grammatical break. The sense of the line carries over into the next line.
10
Q
Retardation
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refers to the deliberate slowing down or delaying of the narrative progression. This technique is often used by poets for building suspense, emphasizing particular events, or creating a more deliberate and measured pace in the storytelling.
11
Q
Dream vision
A
refers to a literary device where the narrator experiences a dream that conveys a profound and often symbolic message. (Cross becomes alive, presents crucifixion as Jesus’ voluntary and noble act.)
12
Q
Prosopopeia
A
rhetorical device in which an abstract idea, inanimate object, or absent person is given human characteristics and attributes. (Cross is anthropomorphised and recalls the events of the crucifixion.
13
Q
Imagery
A
refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating a mental picture for the reader. E.g.: Visual imagery: cross in gold and gems, Auditory imagery: sound of nails going into Christ’s body, Symbolic imagery: change of the cross from stained with blood cross of shame into gold, shining, Mystical imagery: connection between the earthly wood of the Cross and the divine plan is depicted through imaginative and cosmic imagery
14
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Symbol
A
literary device that represents an idea, concept, or quality by using an object, person, or event. E.g.: Cross - 1. Torture device; 2. Redemption, sacrifice; Tree - 1. Life, growth, Earth connection; 2. Source of crucifix; Gold and gems - splendour after Christ’s crucifixion, Earth-Divine connection - Crucifix links spiritual and physical dimensions
15
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Alliterative Revival
A
a literary movement in Middle English poetry during the late 14th and early 15th centuries, characterized by a revival of the Old English poetic tradition of alliterative verse.
16
Q
alliterative verse
A
a poetic form characterized by the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of stressed syllables within a line of poetry. emphasizing rhythmic patterns and alliteration rather than strict rhyme schemes.
17
Q
Arthurian romance cycle
A
a collection of medieval tales and legends centred around the legendary King Arthur, his knights, and the mythical land of Camelot. These romances often involve quests, chivalric adventures, courtly love, and the search for the Holy Grail. The stories are characterized by a mix of historical, mythical, and fantastical elements
18
Q
Medieval romance
A
tales of chivalry, adventure, and courtly love. These stories often feature noble knights undertaking heroic quests, supernatural elements, and themes of love and honour.
19
Q
medieval verse romance
A
a narrative poem written in a metrical and rhymed form, typically in octosyllabic or decasyllabic lines. These romances, popular in medieval literature, often feature chivalric themes, adventures, and quests. They commonly include elements of courtly love, heroic exploits, and supernatural elements
20
Q
courtly love
A
tradition of expressing admiration and devotion between a knight and a noble lady. This concept involves a set of romantic and chivalrous ideals, emphasizing platonic and often unattainable love. Courtly love is characterized by rituals, poetry, and a code of conduct that idealizes the lover’s service and devotion to the beloved, often within a courtly or aristocratic setting.
21
Q
feudalism
A
a social, economic, and political system that dominated medieval Europe, characterized by a hierarchical structure of landownership and obligations.
22
Q
chivalry
A
a medieval code of conduct and ethical system associated with knights and nobility. It emphasizes virtues such as honour, bravery, loyalty, and courteous behaviour, shaping the idealized behaviour and values of the medieval warrior class.
23
Q
Frame narration
A
refers to the overarching structure of the literary work. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims who are traveling together to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The frame narrative consists of the journey itself and the interactions among the pilgrims. Within this frame, each pilgrim takes a turn telling a story during the journey.
24
Q
Heroic couplet
A
form of rhymed poetry. A heroic couplet consists of two lines of rhymed iambic pentameter, meaning each line has ten syllables following a specific rhythm. The rhyming pattern is usually AA, meaning that the final words of each line rhyme with each other. E.g.: “And gladly would he learn and gladly teach.”
25
Estate satire
literary genre in which the author satirizes and critiques the social classes or "estates" of society, often highlighting the shortcomings, vices, and hypocrisies of each group. The term "estates" refers to the three traditional divisions of medieval society: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.
26
iambic pentameter
a poetic meter consisting of five iambs per line, where an iamb is a metrical foot comprising one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable. It is a common and rhythmic pattern used in many English poems and plays, including the works of William Shakespeare.
27
morality play
characterized by allegorical characters representing virtues and vices. The aim is to convey moral lessons by depicting the struggle between good and evil and illustrating the consequences of ethical or sinful choices. E.g.: everyman - the human experience; Fellowship, Kindred, Cousin, and Goods - worldly attachments and relationships; Good deeds - righteous actions and moral integrity; Knowledge - spiritual enlightenment and the understanding of one's moral responsibility; Beauty, Strength, Discretion, and Five Wits - symbolize physical attributes and worldly qualities; death - The inevitability of mortality
28
mystery play
depicted biblical stories, related to Christian mysteries and religious events, performed by guilds and often part of religious ceremonies. Covered biblical narratives, intended to convey religious teachings to an illiterate population. Meant to educate and entertain the public while reinforcing religious beliefs.
29
miracle play
Same as mystery plays were meant to educate and entertain the public while reinforcing religious beliefs, but miracle plays dramatized the lives of saints and the miracles attributed to them. Often focused on the miraculous intervention of divine forces in the lives of individuals, emphasizing themes of faith, piety, and divine intervention.
30
psychomachia
literary or artistic theme depicting the battle or conflict between vices and virtues, often personified as characters. virtues and vices are often portrayed as distinct figures engaged in a symbolic struggle, representing the internal moral conflicts within an individual's soul
31
atonement
the act of making amends for a wrongdoing or sin, seeking reconciliation, redemption, or forgiveness for past harmful actions. Often associated with the idea of restoring harmony in interpersonal and personal relationships with the divine or moral principles.
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penance
the voluntary act of self-punishment or self-discipline as a form of repentance for sins or wrongdoings as a means of seeking redemption, forgiveness, or moral cleansing. Closely tied to the quest for atonement.
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contrition
the state of sincere remorse, regret, or penitence for one's sins or wrongdoings. Characters experiencing contrition may express deep sorrow and a genuine desire to make amends for their actions.
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redemption
the act of overcoming past mistakes, faults, or sins to achieve a positive transformation or salvation. Characters seeking redemption often undergo a process of self-discovery, change, or atonement to make amends for their previous actions. can be a central element in the narrative structure, providing a sense of catharsis and closure
35
allegory vs symbol
both are literary devices used to convey deeper meanings but they operate in different ways: An allegory is a complete narrative or story that serves as an extended metaphor; A symbol is a specific object, person, or element within a story
The entire narrative of an allegory is symbolic; Symbols are more focused and can be part of a larger narrative that may not be entirely symbolic.; Allegories are intentional and explicit in their representation of deeper meanings, aim to convey moral, political, or philosophical messages; The interpretation of a symbol may vary, and it can have multiple meanings
36
tragic hero
a central character in a tragedy who possesses admirable qualities but is flawed in a way that leads to his own downfall. Characteristic features are: noble stature, tragic flaw (hamartia), Reversal of Fortune (Peripeteia), Recognition (Anagnorisis), hubris, catharsis, moral integrity, complex character, inevitability of fate
37
Renaissance tragedy
dramatic work that reflects the intellectual, philosophical, and cultural shifts of the Renaissance period. Showcase classical literature, humanism, and a reevaluation of individual agency and intellectual pursuits. often explore complex characters, moral dilemmas, and the consequences of human actions, reflecting the evolving worldview of the time: Humanism and Individualism; Intellectual Curiosity and Ambition; Conflict between Tradition and Innovation; Moral and Religious Ambiguity
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hubris
excessive pride, arrogance, or self-confidence, often leading to a character's downfall.
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hamartia
a tragic flaw, error in judgment, or inherent imperfection in the character of a protagonist that ultimately leads to their downfall.
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catharsis
an emotional purification or purgation that the audience experiences through the vicarious participation in the intense emotions and actions of the characters.
41
comic relief
a literary device used to provide a break from the tension or seriousness of the main plot through the introduction of humour.
42
Reformation
the religious, political, and cultural movement in the 16th century that aimed to reform the Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of Protestantism, initiated by figures like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others. led to significant changes in religious practices, the authority of the Church, and broader societal structures. Values: Individualism and Personal Agency; Questioning Authority and Tradition; The Role of the Scripture; Conflict between Good and Evil
43
Humanism
an intellectual and cultural movement emphasizing the study of classical literature, human values, and the potential for human achievement. celebrated the individual, human experience, and the pursuit of knowledge, often in contrast to the dominant religious and scholastic traditions
44
Sonnet
A sonnet is a poetic form consisting of 14 lines, traditionally written in iambic pentameter. Features:
45
Iambic pentameter
poetic meter with lines of ten syllables, each containing five iambs. In an iamb, the first syllable is unstressed, and the second is stressed.
46
Final couplet
pair of last two consecutive lines in a poem, often providing a concluding statement, resolution, or closure to the theme explored in the preceding verses.
47
Quastrain
verse in a poem that consists of four lines. Quatrains are one of the most common stanzaic forms in poetry, and they can have various rhyme schemes and meters.
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Sestet
poetic unit with six lines, commonly used in poetry to contribute to the overall structure and rhythm of a poem.
49
Shakespearean tragedy
form of dramatic literature created by William Shakespeare, characterized by themes of human suffering, fatal flaws in complex characters, and a tragic conclusion. often involves the tragic hero, whose downfall is attributed to a personal flaw or error in judgment. Elements such as fate, conflicts, and the exploration of moral dilemmas contribute to the emotional impact of the narrative, aiming to evoke catharsis - feelings of pity and fear in the audience.
50
Soliloquy
dramatic monologue in which a character speaks their thoughts aloud, revealing their innermost feelings, reflections, and intentions. It's self-expression when the character is alone on stage, gives insight into their mind, their internal struggles. Contributes to the overall dramatic effect of the play. Example - King Lear's monologue in the midst of a storm
51
Aside
a dramatic device in which a character briefly addresses the audience or speaks their thoughts aloud while other characters on stage are assumed not to hear. They provide insight into a character's inner thoughts, motivations, or intentions and serve to establish a sense of intimacy between the character and the audience.
52
Synecdoche
literary device where a part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. Form of figurative language that creates vivid and memorable imagery, often highlighting a specific aspect of the subject being described.
53
Comic relief
literary device used to provide a break from the intensity and emotional weight of serious or tragic scenes. Inclusion of humorous or lighthearted elements that temporarily lighten the mood and offer relief to the audience. Provide moments of levity and contrast to the tragic events.
54
Hubris
a term used in literature to describe excessive pride, arrogance, or overconfidence, often leading to the downfall of a tragic hero.
55
Hamartia
is a term in Greek tragedy that refers to a character's tragic flaw or error in judgment, leading to their downfall. This flaw often stems from the character's own actions or decisions, contributing to the overall tragic outcome of the story.
56
Tragedy
a genre of literature, drama, or art that deals with serious and somber themes, often depicting the downfall or destruction of a protagonist. The features that characterize a tragedy are: tragic hero, Tragic Flaw (Hamartia), conflict, fate or destiny, catharsis, inevitable downfall, high stakes, profound themes - the nature of existence, morality, the human condition, and the consequences of unchecked ambition or pride, resolution, sense of doom
57
Poetic justice
a literary device where virtue is rewarded and vice is punished in a manner that is fitting, appropriate, or poetic in its symmetry. a concept that aligns with moral or ethical fairness, ensuring that characters receive consequences or rewards that reflect the nature of their actions.
58
Tragic waste
when good is destroyed along with evil. in King Lear Cordelia becomes Tragic waste when she dies
59
wise foolery'
the use of seemingly foolish or nonsensical behavior as a means of conveying wisdom or insight. often manifests in characters who, through their eccentricity, wit, or unconventional behaviour, impart profound truths or observations.
60
comedy
Comedy, as a genre of drama, is a form of literature or performance intended to amuse and entertain. It typically features humorous situations, witty dialogue, and often explores the lighter aspects of human nature. The central goal of comedic works is to evoke laughter and provide a sense of joy, often culminating in a resolution that restores order or brings about a happy ending.
61
romantic comedy
a genre of drama that combines elements of romance and humor. Typically centred around the romantic relationships of the characters, these stories often involve light-hearted and amusing situations, misunderstandings, and witty dialogue, with the ultimate goal of achieving a happy and satisfying resolution for the central romantic couple.
62
idyll
An idyll is a short poem or prose piece that depicts a peaceful, idealized, and often romanticized scene or episode, typically portraying rural or pastoral life in a serene and harmonious manner. Examples: The realm of the fairies, led by Oberon and Titania, can be seen as idyllic. The ethereal nature of the fairies, the magical spells they cast, and their interactions contribute to a fantastical and idealized depiction.; The forest outside Athens, where much of the action takes place, has elements of an idyll. It's a natural, rural environment where characters like Titania and Oberon interact with the enchanting surroundings, creating a sense of harmony with nature.; The resolution of the romantic entanglements among the mortal lovers in the final act can be seen as idyllic. The confusion and misunderstandings are resolved, and the characters find harmony, leading to the marriages of Hermia and Lysander, and Helena and Demetrius.
63
pastoral
a literary genre or mode that idealizes and romanticizes rural life, often portraying a peaceful and harmonious existence in nature. It typically emphasizes simplicity, innocence, and a connection with the natural world. examples: forest setting; fairies and spirits; rustic characters; love in a natural setting; celebration of nature
64
play-within-a/the-play
also known as a metatheatrical device, refers to a dramatic technique where one or more characters within a play perform another play as part of the overall narrative. This device provides a layered and self-reflective element, often used for comedic effect, satire, or to comment on the main themes of the overarching play.
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syncretism
the blending or combination of different religious, cultural, or philosophical beliefs and practices, often resulting in the creation of a new, hybrid system that incorporates elements from diverse traditions.
66
subplot
a secondary, subordinate storyline within a larger narrative or main plot of a story or play. It often involves additional characters or events that run parallel to, but are distinct from, the primary narrative, contributing to the overall richness and complexity of the work.
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Prologue
an introductory section or prelude to a play or other literary work. It typically serves to provide background information, set the scene, or establish the context for the main action that follows. Prologues in this context often include speeches delivered by a single character or a chorus, addressing the audience directly and offering key details about the plot, characters, or themes of the work about to unfold.
68
Synecdoche
a figure of speech where a part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. In Elizabethan literature, this device was often employed to evoke vivid imagery or emphasize a particular aspect of a character or scene. For example, referring to a ship as "sails" or "masts" to imply the entire vessel.
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Metonymy
a figure of speech where one word or phrase is substituted with another closely related word or phrase. In Elizabethan literature, this was frequently used to suggest associations or attributes indirectly. For instance, using "crown" to refer to the monarchy, or "sceptre" to refer to royal authority.
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Conceit
refers to an extended and elaborate metaphor or comparison that draws a clever and often surprising parallel between two seemingly dissimilar things. Conceits are distinctive for their complexity and intellectual depth, aiming to provide insight or provoke thought through the inventive association of disparate concepts or images.
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Metaphysical conceit
refers to an extended and elaborate metaphor that draws a clever and often unconventional parallel between two seemingly dissimilar things. These conceits are a distinctive feature of metaphysical poetry, involving complex and intellectual comparisons that aim to explore deeper philosophical or emotional themes.
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Cavaliers
a group of 17th-century English poets who were associated with the royalist cause during the English Civil War. Their poetry is characterized by its elegance, wit, and often celebrates the pleasures of life, love, and beauty. The term "Cavalier poetry" reflects the poets' royalist affiliations and their stylistic focus on grace and sophistication.
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Discordia
a deliberate use of contrasting or conflicting elements, ideas, or images within a metaphor or extended metaphor. It involves creating a surprising or unconventional connection between dissimilar concepts to highlight the complexity or tension in the comparison. This intentional discord contributes to the richness and depth of the conceit, challenging conventional expectations and stimulating thought.
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concordia
the harmonious blending or union of diverse or contrasting elements within a metaphor or extended comparison. It involves creating a sense of unity and coherence by bringing together seemingly disparate concepts, often for the purpose of expressing complex emotions or ideas.
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Sacrum (Sacred)
In poetry, "sacrum" refers to the sacred or religious aspects. Poets may explore themes related to spirituality, divine love, religious rituals, or transcendent experiences in the context of the sacred. The use of "sacrum" in poetry often involves a reverence for the divine and an exploration of the mystical or religious dimensions of human existence.
76
Profanum (Profane)
Conversely, "profanum" pertains to the profane or secular aspects in poetry. This involves themes that are not inherently religious or spiritual, such as everyday life, human relationships, nature, and the mundane. Poets exploring "profanum" subjects often focus on the earthly, human experience without necessarily delving into religious or sacred themes.
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Christian epic
a genre of literature that combines the narrative scope and heroic themes of traditional epics with Christian theology and symbolism. These works explore moral, spiritual, and theological concepts such as the nature of God, redemption, and the struggle between good and evil within a Christian framework
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Puritanism
a religious and cultural movement within Protestant Christianity, originating in 16th and 17th century England and later prominent in colonial America. It emphasizes doctrinal purity, ethical rigor, community cohesion, literacy, and opposition to established religious and political authority. Puritans sought to purify the Church of England, emphasizing personal piety, moral discipline, and the importance of education and individual interpretation of scripture.
79
Predestination
a theological concept that asserts that God has foreordained all events and outcomes, including the salvation or damnation of individuals, before the creation of the world. According to this doctrine, God's sovereign will determine the eternal destiny of every person, with no consideration of their actions or merits.
80
Invocation
a literary technique commonly used in epic poetry and other forms of literature, where the writer invokes or calls upon a muse, deity, or higher power at the beginning of a work to seek inspiration, guidance, or blessing for the undertaking ahead. It serves to establish a connection between the writer and the divine, setting the tone for the work and signalling its thematic and spiritual intentions.
81
didactic essay (Pope's version)
a piece of writing that aims to instruct or educate its audience on moral, philosophical, or practical matters. It often presents its lessons or arguments in a systematic and structured manner, using persuasive rhetoric and logical reasoning to convey its message.
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didactic poem
a form of poetry that aims to instruct, educate, or impart moral or philosophical lessons to its readers. It typically presents its teachings through a combination of poetic language, literary devices, and reasoned argumentation, with the intention of enlightening the audience on matters of ethics, aesthetics, or practical wisdom.
83
poetic diction
the distinctive language, vocabulary, and style employed by poets to convey meaning, evoke emotion, and create aesthetic effects in their poetry. It often involves the use of figurative language, imagery, rhythm, and sound devices to heighten the impact and beauty of the poetic expression.
84
Augustan Classicism
a literary and cultural movement that flourished during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BCE - 14 CE) and later became associated with the Neoclassical period in English literature during the early 18th century. It is characterized by an emphasis on order, reason, restraint, and imitation of classical models, particularly those of ancient Greece and Rome. Augustan Classicism in English literature, inspired by the ideals of ancient Rome's Golden Age, saw a revival of classical forms, such as the epic, satire, and ode, and a focus on moral and social themes. This movement contributed to the development of polished and formal writing styles
85
Age of Reason
a period in Western intellectual history during the 17th and 18th centuries characterized by a focus on reason, science, scepticism, and individualism. It marked a departure from traditional religious and supernatural beliefs, emphasizing rational inquiry, empirical evidence, and the pursuit of knowledge as the primary means of understanding the world and improving human society.
86
Enlightenment
an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized reason, science, individualism, and the belief in human progress through the application of knowledge and rational thinking. The Enlightenment challenged traditional authority, superstition, and religious dogma, advocating for concepts such as freedom of thought, tolerance, and the rights of individuals.
87
Neoclassicism
an artistic and intellectual movement that emerged in the 18th century, characterized by a revival of classical principles and aesthetics inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art, literature, and philosophy. It emphasizes order, rationality, clarity, and restraint in artistic expression across various disciplines, including literature, visual arts, architecture, and music. Neoclassical works often exhibit a focus on balance, symmetry, and adherence to traditional forms and structures.
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decorum
the appropriateness of behaviour, speech, or style in a particular context, according to established standards or conventions. It entails adhering to social, cultural, or artistic norms to maintain harmony, propriety, and respectability.
89
Novel
a fictional prose narrative of considerable length, typically presenting a complex plot, vivid characters, and thematic depth. It encompasses a wide range of genres and styles, serving as a vehicle for storytelling, exploration of human experiences, and commentary on society and culture.
90
18th-century formal realism
a literary and artistic movement characterized by an emphasis on accuracy, detail, and adherence to established forms and conventions. It prioritizes the depiction of everyday life and human experiences with meticulous attention to realistic representation, often employing formal structures and techniques to convey social, moral, and philosophical themes.
91
referential language [denotative language]
the use of words and phrases that convey explicit, literal meanings without additional connotations or symbolic interpretations. It aims to communicate specific information or describe objective reality in a clear and straightforward manner, devoid of ambiguity or figurative language.
92
Tangibility
the quality of being perceptible by touch or physical senses, or the extent to which something is concrete, palpable, or physically present. The sense of something being 'believable'
93
Prodigal Son
a parable found in the New Testament of the Bible, specifically in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 15:11-32). In this parable, a young man demands his inheritance from his father, squanders it in reckless living, and then returns to his father, repentant. The father welcomes him back with open arms, symbolizing God's forgiveness and compassion for those who repent. The term "Prodigal Son" is often used metaphorically to describe someone who recklessly wastes their resources or opportunities but later returns to seek forgiveness or redemption.
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homo economicus
a theoretical concept in economics that portrays humans as rational, self-interested individuals who make decisions based on maximizing their own utility or satisfaction, often in the context of economic transactions or activities.
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Providence
the protective care and guidance of a divine or higher power, often believed to shape the course of events in the world for the greater good or according to a divine plan. It encompasses the belief that events unfold according to a purposeful and benevolent design, even if not immediately apparent to individuals.
96
preface
a brief introductory section of a book, typically written by the author or editor, which provides contextual information, background, or acknowledgments related to the content of the book. It serves to prepare the reader for the main text and often includes explanations of the author's intentions, the book's scope, or the circumstances surrounding its creation.
97
satire
a literary or rhetorical device that uses humour, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or ridicule human vices, follies, or societal institutions with the intent of prompting change or provoking thought.
98
irony
a literary or rhetorical device in which there is a contrast or incongruity between what is expected or intended and what actually occurs, often resulting in a surprising or humorous twist.
99
parody
a form of humorous or satirical imitation that exaggerates and mocks the style, characteristics, or conventions of a specific work, genre, or individual, often to make a critical commentary or to evoke amusement.
100
novel
a prose narrative of considerable length that typically focuses on the development of characters, their relationships, and their experiences, often within a realistic or semi-realistic setting. Novels of this period often explored moral, social, and political themes and were characterized by their narrative complexity and engagement with contemporary issues.
101
imperfect novel
refers to a narrative work that falls short of the traditional conventions or expectations of a novel. This could include deficiencies in plot development, character portrayal, or thematic coherence. Imperfect novels often exhibit experimental or unconventional storytelling techniques that challenge the norms of the genre.
102
near-novel
a term used to describe a literary work that shares similarities with the novel format but lacks some essential characteristics or elements of a fully developed novel. Near-novels may feature narrative structures, themes, or characterizations reminiscent of novels but may be shorter in length or less complex in their execution.
103
quasi-novel
a narrative work that bears a resemblance to a novel but deviates significantly from conventional novelistic forms or conventions. Quasi-novels may incorporate elements of other genres or literary forms, such as the epistolary novel or the travelogue, blurring the boundaries between different literary categories. They often challenge readers' expectations of what constitutes a novel while exploring new narrative possibilities.
104
utopia
an imagined or idealized society characterized by harmony, prosperity, and equality, often depicted as an antidote to the social, political, and economic problems of the time. This concept was particularly prominent during the Enlightenment period, where thinkers sought to envision and advocate for societal improvements and reforms based on reason and rationality. Utopian literature of the 18th century often presented visions of perfect societies, exploring themes such as governance, social organization, and human nature, while simultaneously critiquing the flaws of contemporary society.
105
dystopia
a fictional society or world characterized by oppressive governmental control, societal decay, and often a bleak or nightmarish environment. Dystopian narratives in the 18th century typically reflected concerns about political tyranny, social inequality, and the consequences of unchecked power, presenting cautionary tales about the potential dangers of authoritarianism and societal upheaval.
106
self-conscious or self-reflexive novel
a narrative that displays awareness of its own status as a work of fiction and often incorporates metafictional elements. Such novels may include direct addresses to the reader, commentary on the act of storytelling, or characters who reflect on their own roles within the narrative. By drawing attention to the artifice of storytelling and the conventions of the novel form, self-conscious and self-reflexive novels invite readers to consider the relationship between fiction and reality, challenging traditional literary conventions and prompting reflection on the nature of narrative itself.
107
meta-textuality
the literary technique where a text self-consciously comments on its own creation, structure, or meaning within the narrative itself. This can include instances where characters discuss the nature of storytelling, authors directly address the reader, or the narrative reflects on its own composition and purpose. Meta-textuality in 18th-century literature often serves to engage readers in a deeper exploration of the text's themes, form, and literary conventions, while also challenging traditional storytelling boundaries and inviting critical reflection.
108
deus ex machina
a narrative device where an improbable or unexpected event or character is introduced abruptly to resolve a seemingly unsolvable problem or conflict in the plot. This term originated from ancient Greek theatre, where actors playing gods would be lowered onto the stage by a mechanical crane ("machina") to intervene in the story.
109
supernatural
to phenomena or events that are believed to transcend the natural laws or explanations of the physical world. This could include elements such as ghosts, witches, magic, divine intervention, and other mystical occurrences that were often depicted in literature, folklore, and religious narratives of the time.
110
comic epic in prose (for the genre of Tom Jones)
a literary genre that combines the elements of an epic narrative with comedic themes and storytelling techniques. It typically features a flawed yet endearing protagonist who embarks on a journey filled with humorous adventures, encounters with a diverse array of characters, and often romantic entanglements. Despite its comedic tone, the comic epic in prose often addresses serious themes such as morality, social norms, and human nature, using wit, satire, and irony to provide insightful commentary on the society of the time.
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preface
a brief introductory section found at the beginning of a book, typically written by the author or editor. Its purpose is to provide readers with contextual information, insights into the author's intentions, and background about the work itself
112
gothicism
a literary movement characterized by elements of mystery, horror, the supernatural, and the macabre. Gothicism often features atmospheric settings such as ancient castles, decrepit mansions, and isolated landscapes, which serve as backdrops for eerie and suspenseful narratives.
113
gothic novel
a genre of fiction characterized by a blend of horror, romance, and mystery, often featuring eerie atmospheres, supernatural elements, melodrama, and gloomy settings such as crumbling castles or haunted houses. These novels typically explore themes of the macabre, the supernatural, and the psychological, aiming to evoke feelings of fear, suspense, and unease in the reader.
114
medievalism
a cultural or artistic phenomenon that draws inspiration from or imitates aspects of the medieval period, which typically refers to the European Middle Ages, roughly spanning from the 5th to the 15th century. This can encompass various elements such as architecture, literature, art, fashion, language, customs, and beliefs, either in a direct emulation or in a romanticized interpretation of medieval culture and aesthetics.
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sublime
something of such excellence, grandeur, or beauty that it inspires awe, admiration, or reverence in the observer. It often conveys a sense of profound greatness or overwhelming magnitude that transcends ordinary experiences or understanding. In aesthetics and philosophy, the sublime is often associated with feelings of vastness, power, and transcendence that can evoke both fear and wonder. Refers to a sense of awe, terror, and wonder in the face of something vast, mysterious, and incomprehensible.
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terror
more subtle and psychological. It involves a sense of impending dread, suspense, or unease, often created through anticipation or suggestion rather than explicit depiction. Terror works by tapping into the audience's imagination, leaving much to the imagination and allowing fears to grow in the mind of the viewer or reader. Unlike horror, which aims for immediate shock, terror builds tension gradually, leading to a lingering sense of discomfort or anxiety.
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horror
a feeling of revulsion, fear, or disgust evoked by something terrifying, grotesque, or deeply unsettling. It often involves visceral reactions to graphic or explicit imagery, and the focus is on eliciting an immediate emotional response. Horror works may contain elements such as gore, violence, supernatural entities, or disturbing situations designed to shock or disturb the audience.
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Romanticism
Romanticism was a literary and artistic movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that emphasised emotion, individualism, nature, and the sublime. It was a reaction against the industrial revolution and the rationalism of the Enlightenment. In "To a Mouse," Burns reflects on the simplicity and beauty of nature, the interconnectedness of all living beings, and the transient nature of life. The poem is filled with empathy for the mouse and a recognition of the harshness of life, showcasing Romantic themes of nature and emotion. Blake's poems explore the awe-inspiring power and beauty of nature, as well as the profound questions about existence and creation. "The Tyger" marvels at the fierce and majestic tiger, questioning the nature of its creator, "The Lamb" celebrates the innocence and gentleness of a lamb, representing purity and simplicity.
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picturesque
The picturesque is an aesthetic ideal introduced in the 18th century that appreciates nature for its visual beauty and irregularity. It often involves scenes that are charming, quaint, or aesthetically pleasing in their natural simplicity. Burns' vivid description of the mouse's plight and the ruined nest evoke a picturesque image of rural life and nature's fragility. Blake's "The Lamb" captures a picturesque pastoral scene, with its depiction of a lamb in a meadow, emphasising innocence and natural beauty.
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sentimentalism
Sentimentalism in literature emphasises emotional response and the importance of feelings. It often portrays characters in situations that provoke strong emotional reactions. The poem "To a Mouse" elicits sympathy and compassion for the mouse, emphasising the poet's own sorrow and empathy for the creature's suffering. Burns' reflection on human suffering and regret shows a deeply sentimental view. "The Lamb" elicits a sentimental response through its gentle and nurturing imagery. The innocence of the lamb is a direct appeal to the reader's emotions
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Symbolism/ symbol
is the use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities. A a symbol is something that stands for or suggests something else by reason of relationship, association, convention, or accidental resemblance. "To a Mouse": The mouse itself is a symbol of the vulnerable and fragile aspects of life. The nest symbolises home, security, and the destructive impact of human actions on nature. In "The Tyger," the tiger symbolises the fierce, powerful, and destructive forces in nature and creation. The lamb in "The Lamb" symbolises innocence, purity, and the gentle aspects of creation.
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Pantheism
is the belief that the divine pervades all aspects of the natural world and that God is synonymous with the universe. Burns' empathy towards the mouse and the interconnectedness he feels with all living beings can be interpreted as a pantheistic view, recognizing a shared existence and mutual suffering. Blake's exploration of creation in both "The Tyger" and "The Lamb" suggests a pantheistic view where the divine is present in all aspects of nature, both fierce and gentle.
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Nursery rhyme/ song
is a traditional poem or song for children, often characterised by simple language, rhyme, and rhythm. "The Lamb" has the qualities of a nursery rhyme with its repetitive structure, simple language, and rhythmic qualities, making it easy for children to remember and recite.
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ballad
is a type of narrative poem that tells a story, typically composed in short stanzas. Traditional ballads often feature a repetitive structure, simple language, and are meant to be sung. They commonly recount tales of adventure, romance, or historical events, and they employ a rhyme scheme such as ABAB or ABCB. Ballads were originally part of oral tradition, passed down through generations before being written down.
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Lyrical ballad
is a fusion of the traditional ballad form with the expressive, personal, and introspective qualities of lyric poetry. This term is closely associated with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who published a collection titled "Lyrical Ballads" in 1798. This work is significant because it marked the beginning of the Romantic movement in English literature. In lyrical ballads, the focus shifts to the poet's inner feelings, emotions, and personal experiences, often contemplating nature, human life, and the imagination. Wordsworth's approach emphasised the importance of ordinary life and the natural world, aiming to make poetry accessible to common people by using everyday language.
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Picturesque
an aesthetic ideal introduced during the 18th century, describing scenes that are visually charming or striking, like a picture. In the context of literature and particularly in Wordsworth's work, the picturesque involves a detailed, evocative description of landscapes and scenes that highlight their natural beauty and appeal. Wordsworth often employed the picturesque to convey the sublime and tranquil aspects of nature, encouraging readers to appreciate the beauty and emotional impact of the natural world. His poetry celebrates the harmony and beauty of rural landscapes, inviting readers to see the world through a lens that emphasises its aesthetic and emotional richness.
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ballad
a type of narrative poem that tells a story, often set to music. Traditional * are characterised by their simple language and repetitive structure, typically using quatrains (four-line stanzas) with a rhyme scheme of ABAB or ABCB. * often recount tales of adventure, romance, or folklore, and were originally passed down orally through generations before being written down.
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Romantic ballad
incorporates themes and elements characteristic of Romanticism. This includes an emphasis on emotion, nature, the sublime, and the supernatural. * * often explore the individual's experience and the human connection to the natural world, as well as a fascination with the mysterious and the unknown. "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge is a prime example, blending a narrative of a sailor's extraordinary experiences with deep emotional and philosophical themes.
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Symbolism
using symbols—objects, characters, figures, or colours—to represent abstract ideas or concepts. In "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," Coleridge employs rich * to convey deeper meanings. Key symbols in the poem include: The Albatross: Initially a symbol of good luck and the natural world's benevolence, it becomes a symbol of guilt and burden after the mariner kills it. The Sea: Represents both the physical and metaphysical realms, reflecting the mariner's inner turmoil and the broader theme of the sublime. The Sun and Moon: Often symbolises the passage of time, the cycle of life, and the duality of existence (rational vs. irrational, conscious vs. unconscious). Each of these symbols contributes to the poem's exploration of themes like sin, redemption, and the interconnectedness of all life.
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Terza rima
a rhyming verse stanza form that consists of tercets (three-line stanzas) with an interlocking rhyme scheme of ABA BCB CDC, and so on. This structure creates a chain-like pattern that propels the poem forward. Percy Bysshe Shelley used * * in his work "Ode to the West Wind," where the form helps to convey the poem's dynamic and flowing movement, reflecting the wind's powerful and transformative nature.
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Ekphrasis
is a literary description or commentary on a visual work of art. It often aims to convey the essence and emotional impact of the artwork through vivid and detailed prose or poetry. John Keats is famous for his use of * in the poem "Ode on a Grecian Urn," where he explores and meditates on the scenes depicted on an ancient Greek urn, using the artwork as a means to discuss themes of beauty, eternity, and the relationship between art and life
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ode
a form of lyrical poetry that expresses intense emotion and reverence, often dedicated to praising a person, object, or concept. It is typically characterised by an elaborate structure and elevated style. Both Shelley and Keats wrote * that reflect their Romantic ideals. Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" are prime examples, where he delves into themes of transience, beauty, and the interplay between reality and imagination. Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" also exemplifies this form, as he addresses the wind with a passionate plea for personal and political change.
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Symbol
is a literary device where an object, character, figure, or color is used to represent an abstract idea or concept. Both Shelley and Keats used symbolism extensively in their poetry to add depth and layers of meaning. For instance: In Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind," the wind itself is a symbol of change, power, and inspiration, representing the poet's desire for renewal and transformation both personally and in society. In Keats's "Ode on a Grecian Urn," the urn symbolises timeless beauty and the eternal nature of art, contrasting with the fleeting nature of human life. The images on the urn symbolise idealised moments of beauty and love that are frozen in time.
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Utilitarianism
This approach prioritizes measurable, practical outcomes and often reduces complex human experiences to quantifiable data, focusing on efficiency, productivity, and material success. In literature, * is frequently critiqued for neglecting emotional, moral, and imaginative aspects of life, as seen in characters and settings that embody rigid, fact-based thinking and dehumanizing social policies.
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Industrialisation
the transformative process (the industrial revolution)whereby societies shifted from agrarian economies to industrial economies dominated by machine-driven manufacturing and large-scale factory production. In literature, industrialization is often depicted as a double-edged sword, bringing both progress and prosperity while also highlighting issues like worker exploitation, environmental degradation, and the dehumanization of labour.
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Satire
in Victorian era literature is a genre that critiques societal flaws, vices, and hypocrisies through humour, irony, and exaggeration. It targets issues like class inequality, industrialization, and moral hypocrisy to provoke thought, reform, and entertain. Key Features: Social Critique: Highlights issues such as class disparity and poor working conditions.; Irony and Humour: Uses wit to mock societal norms and behaviours.; Exaggeration and Caricature: Portrays characters and situations in exaggerated ways to emphasize flaws.; Moral Undertone: Often aims to inspire moral and ethical reflection and reform.
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omniscient narrator
a narrative voice that possesses unlimited knowledge and insight into the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of all characters in the story. This narrative perspective allows the narrator to provide comprehensive information about the plot, characters, and setting, often offering commentary and interpretation of events. The omniscient narrator is not limited to the perspective of any single character and can move freely between different points of view, offering a broad and authoritative perspective on the story
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stock figures
characters who embody stereotypical traits or roles commonly found in fiction of the period. These characters are often recognizable archetypes, such as the virtuous heroine, the dastardly villain, or the wise old mentor. Stock figures serve familiar narrative functions and may lack depth or individuality, functioning more as symbolic representations of certain moral or social values rather than fully developed personalities
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social determinism
the idea that a person's social background largely determines their opportunities and fate in life. It's depicted through characters whose lives are shaped by their class, gender, and upbringing, highlighting the injustices of rigid social hierarchies and the challenges of social mobility
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Angel in the House
an idealized feminine archetype embodying qualities of domesticity, selflessness, and moral purity. In Victorian literature, the Angel in the House represents societal expectations for women to fulfil traditional gender roles, prioritize family duties, and sacrifice their own desires for the sake of their husbands and children.
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Chinese-box technique
a narrative structure characterized by multiple layers of storytelling nested within each other. In the novel, this technique is manifested through the use of various narrators who recount their experiences and perspectives, often embedding one narrative within another. This creates a complex and recursive narrative structure, allowing for multiple perspectives on the events and characters in the story, as well as layers of interpretation and meaning.
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Victorian gothic (romance)
a literary genre that combines elements of Romanticism and the Gothic tradition within the setting and ethos of the Victorian era. This genre often features dark, atmospheric settings, supernatural elements, and themes of passion, obsession, and psychological complexity. In "Wuthering Heights," these elements are evident in the novel's eerie setting on the Yorkshire moors, its haunted and mysterious houses, and its exploration of intense, often destructive, emotions and relationships. The novel's Gothic elements contribute to its atmospheric and psychological depth, creating a haunting and unforgettable reading experience.
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The Other
individuals or groups who exist outside the dominant societal norms and expectations. These characters often challenge or deviate from conventional ideas of social status, morality, gender roles, or cultural identity. In the novel, characters like Heathcliff, Catherine Earnshaw, Hindley Earnshaw, and Hareton Earnshaw can be considered "The Other" due to their outsider status, unconventional behaviors, or marginalized identities. They provide insights into the complexities of individual identity and belonging, while also serving as critiques of the rigid social hierarchy and moral values of Victorian society.
