terms and models - TERM 2 Flashcards
(162 cards)
1
Q
what are attitudes
A
affective: positive or negative feelings
behavioural: tendencies to act towards an object
cognitive: beliefs and thoughts about object
2
Q
methods to measure attitudes
A
questionnaires, attitude scales (Likert)
covert measures -
observing behaviours
affective measures = implicit association (faster to classify things based on memory)
physiological responses = pupil response, facial EMG (zygomatic major muscle = smiling, corrugated super cilia muscle = frowning)
3
Q
semantic differentials
A
pp rate attitude object according to pairs of opposing evaluative words
4
Q
implicit attitudes
A
no conscious attitude and cannot be controlled
5
Q
explicit attitudes
A
people can report and expression consciously controlled
6
Q
behavioural approach to how attitudes are formed
A
mere-exposure = tendency to develop positive feelings towards familiar objects
used in advertising (positive attitude when seen 20v5v0 times)
interpersonal attraction (women vote more attractive when seen more - 15v10v5)
evaluative conditioning = pairing new stimulus with positive stimulus = positive attitude
drug rated more highly when paired with positive images
negative attitudes towards energy-dense snacks when paired with info on health consequences
7
Q
cognitive approach to how attitudes are formed
A
self-perception = form attitudes by observing behaviour and making inferences (attributions)
facial feeback hypothesis = facial activity can influence affective response
funnier cartoons/ less implicit bias when pen in teeth
8
Q
why do we have attitudes
A
utilitarian/instrumental
ego-defensive
value-expressive
knowledge/ cognitive economy
9
Q
utilitarian/instrumental
A
attitudes exist because they are useful - avoid punishment and retain awards
10
Q
ego-defensive
A
helps protect self image
ex: students who received consistent information on them being a serious student = more positive
more negative evaluation > greater message discounting > source derogation (source is stupid)
11
Q
value-expressive
A
help us express values that are integral to our self-concept
12
Q
knowledge/ cognitive economy
A
attitudes act as schemas
- save cognitive effort
13
Q
attitude change
A
modification of an individuals general evaluative perception of a stimulus or set of stimuli
14
Q
persuasion
A
an active attempt to change a person’s attitude through information
15
Q
changing behaviour to change attitudes
A
yale approach + ELM (dual-process model) that argues that acceptance of a message can be achieved through central or peripheral routes
16
Q
prejudice
A
negative evaluation of a social group significantly based on the individual’s group membership
consistent with tri-partite: cognitive, affective, conative (intentions)
17
Q
changing attitudes through communication - Yale
A
Yale approach -
persuasion characteristics =
source = who is persuading, message = what, audience = to who
SOURCE
attractive sources = persuasion
high credibility sources = persuasion
MESSAGE
fear appeals = persuasive messages to provoke fear - conflicting research
backfire when people feel they are bing controlled = reactance
AUDIENCE
- cognition - audience’s tendency to engage (argument quality = larger persuasion when audience had high cognition)
- self-monitoring - high self-monitors positively influenced by attractive packaging
- regulatory focus/fit - promotion (more responsive when stimulus tells u how u can benefit) or prevention focus (how u can avoid)
18
Q
changing attitudes through communication - elaboration likelihood model
A
people more likely to be influenced when there’s enough time to process message
central route: thinking about the message
factors influencing = motivation, ability, quality of arguments - ATTITUDE CHANGE more likely
peripheral route: relies on external cues/ heuristics -TEMPORARY persuasion
factors influencing = source credibility, message length (length = strength)
if cues present = persuasion
19
Q
discrimination
A
inappropriate and unfair treatment of individuals due to group membership
20
Q
3 forms of discrimination
A
individual (impact on specific groups)
institutional (policies intended to harm specific groups)
structural (policies the appear neutral in terms of intent but have negative impact on specific groups)
21
Q
intergroup bias
A
systematic tendency to evaluate ones own membership group more favourable than non-membership group
encompasses cognition (stereotype), attitude (prejudice) and behaviour (discrimination)
22
Q
frustration-aggression
A
if goals frustrated, energy leaves us in imbalance
rebalance through aggression directed at scapegoats
23
Q
authoritarian personality
A
parenting style affects children like intolerance to minorities = aggression
24
Q
critique of frustration-aggression
A
frustration not necessary for discrimination
individual differences - ignores social context
25
realistic conflict theory
competition for limited resources leads to prejudice
robbers cave study:
evaluated effects of conflict on prejudice and saw if co-operation would help
26
critique of authoritarian personality
acquiescence bias - no items on f-scale were reversed = tendency of saying yes inflate correlations between items
psychoanalytic constructs hard to empirically test
ignores situation effects on prejudice
27
critique of realistic conflict theory
are conflict and competition necessary for prejudice/discrimination?
28
social identity theory
self concept = personal identity + social identity
engaging in favourable behaviours that benefit the in-group relative to outgrip helps to maintain positive self-concept
group studies - assigned to random groups and pp would give points to favour in-group profit
29
explicit measures of prejudice
semantic differentials
Likert scale
blatant prejudice scale
subtle prejudice scale
traditional sexism sclae
modern sexism scale
30
traditional forms of bias
overt, blatant, obvious
ethophaulisms (slurs)
31
modern forms of bias
covert, subtle, ambiguous
32
implicit measures of prejudice
affective measure = implicit association test
33
modern discrimination - 3 forms of microaggression
micro-invalidation = actions invalidating people of colour
micro-insults = demean racial identity (e.g. asking person of colour how they got a job)
micro-assaults = racially-motivated actions meant to cause harm
34
tokenism - INSTITUTIONAL DISCRIMINATION
publicly making small concessions to a minority group to deflect accusations of prejudice
example
glass cliff - women more likely to be placed in precarious leadership roles (where there is a high risk of failure)
Ryan and Haslam = women more likely to perform poorly
35
direct intergroup contact
Allports contact hypothesis - contact between groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions
36
conditions promoting prejudice-reduction
1. equal status
2. common goals
3. intergroup co-operation
4. institutional support
37
evidence of direct intergroup contact
515 studies
greater reductions in prejudice seen under Allport conditions
reduced by reducing anxiety, increasing empathy and increasing outgrip knowledge
38
indirect intergroup contact
vicarious contact = observation of interaction between in-group and outgrip members
extended contact = knowing that in-group members have contact with outgroup members
imagined contact
39
evidence of extended contact
White, Asian and African students who reported knowing more in-group members with at least one outgrip friend reported less prejudice
meta-analysis supports positive relationship between extended contact and intergroup attitudes
40
mechanisms underlying how vicarious and extended contact work
1. reducing intergroup anxiety
2. increasing empathy
3. cognitive overlap between self and outgroup members
4. changing perceptions of social norms
41
indirect intergroup contact - imagined contact
mentally simulating positive interactions with members of an out-group
Evidence:
pp who imagined positive interactions reported positive attitudes towards Sz
meta-analysis supports effectiveness in promoting positive attitudes , intentions and behaviour
42
mechanisms underlying imagined contact
1. reduced intergroup anxiety
2. increased empathy
3. increased knowledge
43
critique of imagined contect
studies show small effect of imagined contact on reducing prejudice across 36 samples
doesn't replicate in studies
44
Apfelbaum 2010
digital storybook on equality given with either colour blind approach or value diversity approach (appreciate how we r all different)
children told stories varying in degree of racially biased behaviour - no bias, ambiguous, explicit bias
children less likely to perceive discrimination in colourblind story - even when discrimination was explicit
45
colourblind ideologies
shouldn't see others in terms of colour of skin
critique: could lead to micro invalidation
46
educational strategies
increase knowledge
Hughes - history lessons on racism showed more positive attitudes towards African Americans
47
prejudice confrontation
action taken by a person to confront prejudice behaviour
48
bystander anti-prejudice
confrontation by a non-target individual
49
Aarts 1997 - cycling
measure cycling ability then likelihood of cycling in 16 descriptions of travel situations (4 attributes)
measures favourability of using a bicycle in each situation and number of attributes used to make each decision
weak habit = use more attributes about situation
50
Czopp study
White pp completed task with white confederate making inferences about sentences paired with white/black people
The sentences were either stereotypical or non-stereotypical
Then randomly assigned feedback
PP completed 20-item Attitudes towards Black Scale
Participants confronted about stereotypes had greater reduction in prejudice
51
what are habits
strong associations between contexts and responses developed through repetition
by consequence: relatively automatic responses that are insensitive to changes
52
habits insensitive to changes in the value of response?
measured habit strength (how frequently eat popcorn)
context (cinema or meeting)
value of response (stale or not)
strong habit - still eat popcorn when stale
53
criteria for automaticity
1. don't require deliberation
2. occur outside conscious awareness
3. insensitive to changes in value of response
4. difficult to control
54
are associations developed through repetition
wood, quit, kashy
43% of actions performed almost daily with sam contexts
55
webb - meta-analysis
changes in intentions led to larger changes in behaviours that pp performed sporadically than in behaviours that could be repeated into habits
56
mental habits
negative thinking measured by HINT: habit index of negative thinking
57
wood Gam and Guerrero Witt - habits
4 weeks before moving - asked how often they performed certain action and where, who with and if they also did action
results:
after moving,
less watching tv habit when more perceived change in location for strong habit
negative correlation for strong habit of change in others presence and reading newspaper
frequency of exercising decreased when more change in location and stronger habit
STRONG HABIT = MORE PERCEIVED CHANGE
58
counter-intentional habits
intentions have smaller effects on behaviours performed frequently in similar situations
59
why is it hard to break habits
People not aware that habits drive behaviour, what cues trigger habits and habitual responses
Habits are insensitive to changes in the value of response
60
priming task - habits
pp respond faster when habit (snack) is primed by cue (home) over alternative snack
61
habitual vs non-habitual response
automatic ingrained behaviours, shorter latency response vs deliberate, conscious effort
62
implementation intention
plan details how when and where they will perform behaviour
creates a new association with cue
Holland - II group had most change in recycling behaviour
63
vigilant monitoring
being alert to cues that prompt habitual responses
requires self-awareness
Quinn - vigilant monitoring showed most affect in changing habit
64
environmental psychology
study of the interplay between individuals and the built and natural environment
65
Boutellier - office space
multi-space layout = more interactions per hour than cell offices but events lasted longer in cell offices
mutlispace spent more time without communication between interactions
66
Seddigh - environment and task type
distraction had more impact on tasks requiring more concentration, except in cell offices
cognitive stress higher in all office types except cell offices, when higher levels of concentration needed
67
field theory. - Lewin
B = f(P,E)
B = behavior
p = person
e = env
behaviour determined by interaction between person and environment
68
using topology to map life space
POG
P = individual
O = current behaviour/situation
G = goal wish to achieve
69
environmental response inventory
negative correlation between need for privacy and evaluations of public spaces
70
Roskams et al 2019
higher noise sensitivity correlated with negative perceptions of acoustic quality in office
more sensitive to noise = greater difficulty concentrating, higher stress and lower productivity
71
what makes an environment restorative?
perceived restorativeness scale:
fascination (engaging nature)
being away (escapism)
coherence (harmony)
compatibility (doing what I like)
72
affect of sounds on mood - Jiang
park and nature sounds had biggest increase in mood
muteness in street had big drop in mood and office with traffic had big drop
73
Mayer et al - walks
more positive effect and higher levels of reflection in nature setting when asked to reflect on tying a 'loose end'
74
stress recovery theory
natural environments evoke positive effect without conscious recognition
lowers arousal and reduces stress
75
attention restoration theory
environments fight for our attention but natural environments provide:
fascination
connectedness
so restore attention
76
perceptual fluency account
natural settings processed more fluently due to fractal patterns and more redundant info
77
Bratman - well being and nature
more contact with nature = high well-being and less ill-being , less ruminating with problems
78
health
state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
79
huber definition of health
proposes a shift towards the ability to self-manage challenges
80
health behaviour
purpose of preventing or detecting disease of for improving health
can be positive or negative
81
broadest sense health behaviour
behaviours people engage in that affect their health
measured using categorical or continuous measurements
82
Alameda county study
7000 adults
measured 7 baseline negative health behaviours
people over 75 who partook in all 7 health behaviours had health comparable to those aged 35-44 who did less than 3
83
Khaw - 20,000 people data
survival associated with:
not smoking
being physically active
drinking moderately
eating 5 or more servings of fruit and veg a day
84
health behaviours in modern world
fluid and changes with medical knowledge
vary in influence in time and populations
evidence is variable
85
biology of health behaviours
twin studies = heritable component for nicotine and obesity
some behaviours release dopamine = reinforcement
disabilities
86
social aspect of health behaviours
peer influence
cultural values
16-24 yrs - most likely to binge drink
80% of adults do not meet WHOs recommended levels of physical activity
87
psychology of health behaviours
stress > smoking, drinking
fear avoidance
attitudes and beliefs
88
COM-B model
capability + motivation + opportunity (environment that allows) = behaviour
89
capability
physical (skill + strength) and psychological (capacity to engage)
90
motivation
reflective motivation = evaluations and plans
automatic motivation = emotional reaction
91
COM-B and covid
psychological capability, social opportunity and reflective motivation positively influenced behaviour
automatic motivation and physical opportunity negatively influenced behaviour
interventions to promote and maintain. - involves all positive influences
92
COM-B and physical activity
31% of variance explained by COM-B
capability and opportunity were associated with behaviour through motivation
93
designing change intervention
1. understand behaviour
2. identify intervention option
3. identify content and implementation techniques
94
behaviour change wheel
19 frameworks
comprehensive coherent
identified 9 intervention functions and 7 policy categories (made by authorities)
95
policy categories
environmental/social planning
marketing
legislation - laws
service provision - delivering a service
regulation - rules
fiscal measures - tax systems
guideline
96
opportunity barriers found when trying to reduce sitting in NHS workers
lack of adjustable desks
social norms go against standing
limited knowledge on health risks of prolonged sitting
low beliefs on the positives of standing
97
Martin-payo - diabetes
type 2 diabetes - researched intervention effect
intervention group = significant improvement in diet, exercise and a decrease in HbA1c
98
Risk definition
the potential of gaining or losing something of value resulting from a given action or inaction which can be foreseen or unforeseen
99
risk perception
the subjective judgement that people make about the severity and probability of a risk
100
percentage risks of people dying from event/disease
CV disease = 31.8%
cancer = 17.08%
respiratory infection = 4.57%
road incident = 2.22%
suicide = 1.42%
homicide = 0.72%
malnutrition = 0.41%
terrorism = 0.05%
natural disaster = 0.02%
101
Slovic - percentage judgements
technical expert judgements are in line with objective data
lay judgements don't align with objective data or lay estiamtes
102
risk perceptions affect political attitudes
level of perceived risk predicts support for aggressive anti-terrorism strategies
lower perceived risk of COVID in a state where high number of trump supporters
103
risk perceptions affect behaviours
estimated 1500 Americans died on the road in attempt to avoid flying when it was perceived as risky
higher perceived risk = higher preventative health behaviours in countries across Europe, Asia and america
104
risk perceptions affect economy and society
Decrease in footfall and tourism following Salisbury novichok poisonings led to £3.7m fund from Government to help city recover
UK enters recession after gross domestic product plunged 20.4% in second quarter of 2020.
105
risk perceptions allow better communications
Acton, Rogers and Zimmerman – people more concerned about radiation than explosion from bomb
Neumann-Bohme – concerns bout vaccine side-effects reducing willingness to be vaccinated
106
risk perceptions allow us to direct policy
Taylor, Dessai – public perception of climate risks predict support for climate change policies
Foad – higher perceived threat of COVID-19 = greater support for lockdown
107
protection motivation theory
occur when individuals have high protection motivation
arises as a result of cognitive appraisals: threat appraisal and coping appraisal
108
threat appraisal
evaluating severity and personal relevance to a threat
perceived severity (if I continue to smoke, I could get cancer)
probability of being vulnerable to the threat (dad smoked and is healthy)
reward of risky behaviour (smoking helps me concentrate
109
coping appraisal
considers the protective behaviour (how they will cope)
response efficacy (if I quit I can reduce my risk)
confidence for being able to engage in the behaviour (I tired to quit but failed)
response costs of adaptive behaviour (if I quit, calming effect will be gone)
110
evidence for PMT
Threat appraisal – effect size medium
ppl who perceived higher severity of threat = engage in protective behaviour
Coping appraisal – effect size medium
if protective behaviour works, more likely to engage with it.
confidence in their ability increases likelihood to engage
Adaptive intentions or behaviours – medium effect size. Higher reward = more likely to engage
more response costs = less likely to engage
large effect size
111
malmir evidence for pmt
cervical screening
educational intervention had significant effects on experimental group as screening attendance, self-efficacy and health enquiries increased (didn't in control group)
112
critique of PMT
- Measures intentions over behaviour in many studies - often vague
- Self-report measures used = weak
- Not often validated/reliable
- Smaller relationship between threat appraisals and protective behaviour: maybe because they are better predictors of behaviour intended to reduce health threats? – less consequence
- Some studies criticised for not using mediation analysis to test if impact of intervention is due to changes in PMT constructs
113
cultural theory of risk perception
- People gravitate to risk perceptions that align with their cultural views: fatalism, hierarchy, individualism and egalitarianism
114
fatalism
regulated by social groups they don't belong to
indifferent about risk
115
hierachy
fear things that disrupt the natural order of society
116
individualism
fear things that obstruct their freedom
117
egalitarianism
fear things that increase inequalities
118
evidence of cultural theory for RP
hierarchy + individualism = concerns about social deviance and war (individualism more concerned about market issues)
egalitarianism concerned about tech, environment and breakdown of democracy
119
limitations of cultural theory
Only explains small amount of variance
Unreliable, non-validated methods of research
(only 5% of variance in risk judgement explained by culture)
120
heuristics and biases
Heuristics = mental shortcuts used to simplify decision-making
121
affect heuristic
Affect heuristic = making decision based on emotions (positive feeling towards risk = underestimation of harm)
evidence = people pay more insurance when more sentimental value
122
availability heuristic
risk perception depends on how easily person can see the risk happening
e.g. rare causes of death overestimated due to media
evidence = direct experience w flooding meant less likely to live in house with higher risk
123
optimism bias
Bad things happen to others not me
More likely to engage in risky behaviour
Due to defensive denial, downward comparison or egocentrism
Evidence – college-age drivers believed they would be at less risk than other drivers in an accident. Same with smokers
124
psychometric paradigm
judgement of risk influenced by multiple dimensions
dread and unknown factor are main components
125
strengths and limitations of psychometric paradigm
Strengths –
Replicated studies
Agreement that dread and unknown are important
Psychometric paradigm typically explain 70% of variance
Limitations –
Poorer association at individual level
Different dimensions matter in different studies
126
social amplification of risk
communication process - media
amplification/attenution - exaggeration or minimisation of risk based on media coverage
individual and social factors
feedback loops
127
evidence of social amplification
Effects of increased media on GM food
Risk perception increased during highest levels of media coverage but risk perceptions subsequently reduced as coverage diminished
128
evaluation of social amplification
limitations =
amplification may be directed as exaggeration
too general
formulated 30 years ago
129
replication
repeatedly finding the same results
- Protects against false positives, increase generalisation, address researcher fraud
130
direct replication
a scientific attempt to recreate the critical elements
Similar results means data is accurate and reproducible
131
registered replication reports
collection of independently conducted direct replications of a study. Results published regardless of outcome
132
conceptual replication
testing same hypothesis using different procedure
Similar results means they are robust
133
outcome switching
changing the outcomes of interest in the study depending on observed results (=p-hacking) which is maximising likelihood of statistically significant effect
134
sloppy science
- Flexibility in data collection, analysis and reporting dramatically increases actual false-positive rates
- Percentage of respondents who have engaged in questionable practices was high
135
moderators
Variables that influence the nature of an effect
136
publication bias
findings that are statistically significant are more likely to be published than those that are not
137
open science
the process of making content and process of producing evidence and claims transparent and accessible to others
Transparency > trust
138
pre-registration
define RQ methods and approach to analysis before observing research outcomes. Helps to prevent HARKing (hypothesising after results are known) and hindsight bias
139
peer review process
1. Reviewers and editors assess a detailed protocol
2. Following favourable reviews, the journal offers acceptance in principle
140
traditional method of publication
- Researchers submit to journal who decide whether to publish
- Sign copyright over to journal and charge unis/libraries
141
types of open access publishing
Gold open access:
- Researchers pay journal to publish so it is freely accessible online
Green open access:
- Put an unformatted version of a manuscript in repository
Open access works are used more (36-600% more)
Discussed more in non-scientific settings
142
humour
psychological response characterised by amusement
143
four essential components of humour
social context - laugh more with others, oppurtunities for play
cognitive - perceptual processes - idea/image that is absurd
we appraise it as non serious
emotional response- 'mirth' = pleasurable feeling
vocal-behavioural expression of laughter = mirth expressed as smiling/laughter
144
types of humour
jokes
spontaneous conversational humour - worth 72% of daily laughter. Context dependent
unintentional humour - physical or linguistic
145
evolutionary theory
first social vocalisation emitted by babies
also in monkeys
started in social play and adapted to mental play
survival - social emotional functions. Indicator of intelligence
vocal grooming - facilitates social bonding
false alarm - laughter shows a situation as unserious
146
incongruity theory
incongruity is determinant of whether something is humorous
must be resolved
contains double meaning/surprise
limitation:
size weight illusion studies
- incongruity without resolution is still capable of eliciting humour
147
relief theory
humour is used to relieve built up stress/tension
support:
more arousal = more enjoyment
pp exposed to high arousal conditions rated jokes as funnier than low arousal conditions
148
superiority theory
plato - laughter originates in malice
belittling another person
playful aggression - people can use laugher to make fun of those inferior
limitations:
little evidence saying aggression is involved in all humour
animal studies - laughter only in friendly situations
unfalsifiable
149
humour as social interaction
jokes almost always about people
emotion mirth is shared
laughter communicates emotional state
150
self-disclosure/social probing - laughter
can see degree to which attitudes are tolerated or shared by others by making controversial jokes
walle - sexual jokes expressed possible sexual liaison
151
social norms violation and control
joking while being rude means someone can violate social norms without people taking offence
152
status and hierarchy maintenance
reinforce statuses
Robinson-individuals who more frequently interrupted other (higher status) were more likely to make others laugh
153
social bonding
laughter helps coordinate group members
provine - laughter frequently followed seemingly mundane statements
= laughter is a social signal of general positive emotion
154
social communication
laughter used to elicit emotional responses onto others
exposure to humorous stimuli in presence of laughter as seen as funnier - induces emotional arousal
155
humour - stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination
used to resolve incongruities - need to be aware of stereotype
disparagement humour = prompts amusement through belittling an individual/ social group
156
prejudiced norm theory
exposure to disparagement humour affects tolerance of discrimination against groups
communicates approval others to behave in prejudiced manner
less fear of punishment
157
Olsen - effect of disparagement humour on attitudes towards targeted group
exposure to disparaging humour had no effects on attitudes towards men or lawyers
however pp were relatively advantaged in the culture
158
mendiburo-seguel and ford - effect of disparagement humour on attitudes towards acceptability of prejudice
377 residents
found no effects on the disparagement maniupaltion on attitudes towards gay men or politicians
Significant effect of type of disparagement on acceptability of prejudice against gay men
ridicule of gay men was more acceptable after exposure to disparaging jokes versus disparaging serious comments or no disparagement
results are same against other disadvantaged groups
159
willingness to discriminate against targeted groups
96 males
either sexist joke or no-sexist joke condition
completed rape proclivity scale
sexist joke condition = higher levels of rape tendency
160
laughter helping stress
ability to respond with humour in face of stress = effective coping skill
making fun of situations normally viewed as threatening
reappraise stressful situation to a new less-threatening pov
161
does humour reduce stress
humorous narrative showed less emotional distress and lower arousal
use of humour based coping strategies associated with lower perceived stress due to COVID
not always the best:
- adaptive self-enhancing components of humour had positive effect
- maladaptive self-defeating components of humour had negative effects
162
humour and physical health
follow up study
cognitive component of sense of humour is positively associated with survival from mortality related to CVD and infections in women and men
= helps cope
NO-
stand-up comedians associated with shorter lifespan when in higher comedy rank - stress?
relieving pain in elders with humour therapy program = significantly more reduction in pain after 8 weeks
