terms

Question 1

Define operant conditioning

Answer 1

Behaviour motivated by consequences. (voluntary). ie rat pushing button to recieve food.

Question 2

Define classical conditioning

Answer 2

(involuntary). when a neutral stimuli is paired with an unconditioned stimuli that produces an unconditioned response so that the neutral stimuli, now the conditioned stimuli, elicts the conditioned response in abscence of the original unconditioned stimuli

Question 3

What are the three stages of memory?

Answer 3

Encoding, storage & retrieval

Question 4

Describe the multi-stage memory model that Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, proposed?

Answer 4

Sensory input -> sensory memory -> attention to a particular stimuli & encoding into neural code -> working (short-term) memory (proposed by Baddley) -> rehearsal -> further encoding into long-term memory -> long-term memory -> retrieval -> working memory (episodic buffer)

Question 5

Explain, in brief, what Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is?

Answer 5

Proposed in 1986 by Albert Bandura. SCT is an elaboration of both classical and operant conditioning. It adds in; observational learning and several cogitive processes that mediate the relationship between stimuli and response.

Question 6

What are the 5 cognitive mediational processes proposed by Albert Bandura in his Social Cognitive-Learning Theory?

Answer 6

Attention-How attentive the observer is to the stimuli. Is influenced by the observer’s perceived similarity to the model.

Retention- Influenced by the observer’s attentiveness to the stimuli. If attention is high enough, info. about the model’s behaviour is encoded along with a symbolic meaning of the experience for later use.

Reproduction- Refers to the observer’s abiltiy to actually reproduce the modelled behaviour. The observer’s produced response to a certain situation is in part, guided by the previously stored symbolic information of the modelled behaviour.

Motivation- The observer’s motivation to reproduce the behaviour. Was the model’s behaviour rewarded or punished? Takes into account vicarious reinforcement and the observer’s identification to the model.

Self-efficacy- The observer’s self-confidence in being able to perform the behaviour or not. Significantly influences motivation.

Question 7

What are the four components of working (short-term) memory?

Answer 7

Visuospatial sketchpad
phonological loop
episodic buffer
central executive

Question 8

In the context of Memory, what are the three levels of processing [information]?

Answer 8

Structural encoding-shallow-how something looks.

Phonological (phonemic) encoding-deeper-sounding something out.

Semantic encoding-deepest- paying attention to the words meaning.

Question 9

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 9

Simple rote repetition. E.g memorising exam content by going over the same notes numerous times.

Question 10

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 10

Involves focusing on the meaning of the information and expanding on it. E.g learning something new and thinking about how it applies to your everyday life.
It is focusing on, and understanding, the core idea behind something.

Question 11

What is a schema?

Answer 11

A schema is a mental framework, an organised pattern of thought, about some aspect of the world.
Schemas help encode information into meaningful patterns.

Question 12

What is an associative network?

Answer 12

The concept that long-term memory is represented as a large network of related concepts and ideas. Each concept/idea is a node and these nodes are linked by ‘lines’, with shorter lines being stronger and longer lines being weaker associations. E.g firetruck activates nodes for red, truck, fire, emergancy, water, hose etc etc.

Question 13

Briefly describe spreading activation theory?

Answer 13

Refers to associative networks. The concept that when we think about a concept, there is a spreading activation of related concepts throught the associative network. one node primes the next.

Question 14

Briefly explain what a neural network (connectionist) models are?

Answer 14

Similaer to the associative network models, each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes.

Question 15

In the context of social psychology, what is an attribution?

Answer 15

A judgment that we make about the cause of our own, and other peoples, behaviours and subsequent outcomes.

Personal attributions-infer that people’s internal dispositions, traits or characteristics cause their behaviour. ie, “he is such a jerk! he only thinks about himself!”.

Situational attributions-infer that aspects of the situation, context or environment cause a behaviour. ie, “he’s been under a lot of stress lately.”

Question 16

In the context of social psychology, what three types of information determine whether a personal or situational attribution is made?

Answer 16

consistency- First, is the response consistent over time?
distinctiveness-Second, is the response distinctive? Is it specific to one particular thing, or generalised to many?
consensus-Finally, how do other people respond? Do they agree or disagree with the belief?

Question 17

In context to social psychology, if all 3 attributional factors are high, what type of attribution is it?

Answer 17

Situational attribution

Question 18

In context to social psychology, if an attribution has high consistency but low distinctiveness and low consensus, what type of attribution is it?

Answer 18

Personal attribution

Question 19

In context to social psychology, if an attribution has low consistency, what type of attribution is it?

Answer 19

It is a transient attribution. These are unstable factors ie change in mood.

Question 20

What is fundamental attribution error?

Answer 20

Underestimating the impact of the situation and overestimating the role of personal factors when explaining other people’s behaviour.
A tendency to blindly blame the person and their characteristics as the cause of the behaviour.

Question 21

What is self-serving bias?

Answer 21

The tendency to make personal attributions for successes and situational attributions for failures.

ie doing well on an easy test and taking credit for being smart OR doing poorly on an easy test and instead blaming that the test was too hard.

Question 22

Primacy effect, which is the saliency of the first few items in a list when asked to recall that list, influences the first impressions about someone?

Answer 22

Yes, it is the tendency to attach more importance to the initial information that we learn about a person.

Question 23

What is a sterotype?

Answer 23

A generalised belief about a group or category of people. A stereotype is a powerful schema.

Question 24

What is a self-fufilling prophecy?

Answer 24

This occurs when people’s expectations lead them to act toward others in a way that brings about the expected behaviours, thereby confirming their original impression.
ie saying im to dumb to win the spelling so i wont even enter into the competition, thus the expectation that i wont win lead me to not even enter which consequentialy removed any chance of winning at all.

Question 25

In context to social psychology, what is an attitude?

Answer 25

It is a positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus, such as a person, action, object or concept

Question 26

What are the three factors that help explain (mediate?) the attitude-behaviour relationship?

Answer 26

First, attitudes influence behaviour more strongly when situational factors that contradict our attitudes are weak.

Second, attitudes have a greater influence on behaviour when we are aware of them and when they are strongly held.

Third, general attitudes best predict general classes of behaviour, and specific attitudes best predict specific behaviours.

Question 27

What is theory of planned behaviour?

Answer 27

Our intention to engage in a behaviour is strongest when we have a positive attitude toward that behaviour, when subjective norms (our perceptions of what other people think we should do) support our attitudes and when we believe that the behaviour is under our control.

Question 28

What is theory of cognitive dissonance?

Answer 28

It maitains that people strive for consistency in their cognitions.

When two or more cognitions contradict one another (such as ‘I am a truthful person; the task is boring’ and ‘I just lied to another student; I told them that those boring tasks were interesting’), the person experiences an uncomfortable state of tension, which Festinger calls cognitive dissonance, and becomes motivated to reduce this dissonance. The theory predicts that to reduce the dissonance and restore a state of cognitive consistency, people will change one of their cognitions or add new cognitions.

Cognitive dissonance theory is best suited to explaining behaviours that contradict salient attitudes / our self-image.

Question 29

What is the term for ‘behaviour that is inconsistent with one’s attitude”?

Answer 29

Counterattitudinal behaviour

It produces cognitive dissonance only if we perceive that our actions were freely chosen rather than coerced.

Question 30

What do external justifications do?

Answer 30

Reduces dissonance.

Some examples are; noting that other people have also behaved counterattitudinally, or by making other excuses.

Question 31

What is self-percecption theory?

Answer 31

We make inferences about our own attitudes by observing our own behaviours.

Self-perception theory is best suited to explainng behaviours that contradict weak or minor self-held attitudes/beliefs.

Question 32

What are three core aspects of the persuasion process?

Answer 32

The Communicator credibility—how believable we perceive the communicator to be—is often a key to effective persuasion.
Credibility has two major components:
expertise and trustworthiness.
Physical appearance and characteristics also
influence communicator credibility.

The message- Research indicates that the two-sided refutational approach is most effective.
A two-sided refutational message considers
the opposing point of view and, furthermore,
includes an argument or mention of evidence
that refutes that point of view.

The audience-People differ in their need for cognition. Some enjoy analysing issues; others prefer not to spend much mental effort.

Question 33

What are the two routes to persuasion?

Answer 33

The central route to persuasion - occurs when people think carefully about the message and are influenced because they find the arguments compelling.

The peripheral route to persuasion - occurs when people do not scrutinise the message but are influenced mostly by other factors such as a speaker’s attractiveness or a message’s emotional appeal.

Question 34

What is a social norm?

Answer 34

They are widely shared expectations about how people should think, feel and behave.

ie theres three wall mounted urinals in the mens bathroom and the leftmost one is occupied, choosing to use the middle one would go against social norms. This is an example of an unspoken social norm. Some are formal laws, others not.

Question 35

What is a social role?

Answer 35

A set of social norms that characterise how a person in a given social position should behave.
ie ‘uni student’, ‘police officer’, ‘mum’, ‘dad; and ‘sister’ etc.

Question 36

What is role conflict?

Answer 36

Because we have so many different roles simultaneously at once, oftentimes the associated norms of one role clash with the associated norms of another.

Question 37

What is autokinetic effect?

Answer 37

When a person stares at a small dot in a dark room for an extended period of time and they then begin to believe that the dot is moving, when in fact it is not moving at all.

Question 38

What is informational social influence?

Answer 38

Following the opinions or behaviour of others that we believe to have accurate knowledge and that what they are doing is right.

Question 39

What is normative social influence?

Answer 39

Conforming to obtain the rewards that result from being accepted by others, while also avoiding social rejection.

Question 40

In context to social psychology, what is a ‘confederate’?

Answer 40

Someone in an experiment that isnt actually a participant, but rather an accomplice of the experimenter. However, as far as the real participant(s) are concerned, they are participants too.

Question 41

What are two common factors affecting social norm conformity?

Answer 41

Group size- likelihood of conformation to group norms increases with group size up to 5 members, after which conformity likelihood has insignificant changes past 5.
Put simply, after 5 group memebers, conformity chance stops increasing.

Presence of a dissenter- people dissagreeing (even if they are actaully wrong) with the others.

Question 42

What is social identity theory?

Answer 42

Social identity is the portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.

Question 43

What are some of the factors that influence obedience?

Answer 43

Remoteness of the victim- is the victim observable? Or out of sight?

Closeness and legitimacy of the authoritive figure- figures who are perceived to be more legitimate and those who are closer in proximity lead to the greatest obedience.

Diffusion of responsibilty- Obedience increases when someone else does the dirty work.

Personal characteristics- weakly influence obdience at best.