Terms

Question 1

Ecological Security

Answer 1

• one of the six major interpretations regarding the environment and security according to Barnett
• Barnett defines this as “being about the impacts of human activity on the environment”
• It “emphasizes at least implicitly that it is ecosystems and ecological processes that should be secured, and the principal threat to ecological integrity is human activity.”
• referent object= ecosystems and ecological processes
• Humans are only secure insofar as they are part of the environment
• Has not had much influence on security policy because of how significantly it differs for traditional conceptions of security
• e.g. Clean rivers or deforestation

Question 2

Common security

Answer 2

One of the six major interpretations regarding the environment and security according to Barnett

• Focuses on the global nature of some environmental problems which require collective action to relieve them
• Nation state is the referent object, cooperation key to solving the problem
• Limited in its ability to make a difference by the fact that no two countries have the exact same interests and all sovereign rights
• e.g. MEAs like Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol

Question 3

Environmental Violence (change and violent conflict)

Answer 3

• ONe of the six major interpretations regarding the environment and security according to Barnett
• Is the most developed field of environment and security
• Looks to consider whether environmental change is a cause of violent conflict
• The consensus today is that there is no link, however, many studies have found an indirect relationship with environmental change acting as a force multiplier within weak states with internal issues
• Strongly influenced by realism
• Population and scarcity are two of the key factors considered as a cause of conflict
• e.g. Can the war in Syria be explained through the drought? de Chatel argument/article

Question 4

Environmental Change and National Security

Answer 4

• One of the six major interpretations regarding the environment and security according to Barnett
• Referent object= the nation-state
• Natural resources/environment are key for economy and economic growth
• “It can also weaken the legitimacy and stability of ruling regimes by decreasing the income they gain from resource-based rents or taxes, thereby, undermining their ability to provide welfare, employment, and key services.”
• Can affect territory i.e. existential threat
• e.g. Kiribati or Tuvalu (5 m above sea level, predicted rise of 1 m in next 100 years)
• However, framing environmental change as a national security threat has 3 key issues as Deudney argues: environmental threats are accidental and their causes much more uncertain so traditional conceptions of fighting with military don’t work, may not divert attention to environmental issues but rather strengthen existing security logic and institutions, environmental change not likely to cause wars

Question 5

Environmental change and greening defense

Answer 5

• One of the six major interpretations regarding the environment and security according to Barnett
• Referent Object- the environment
• Focuses on the military and the environment and the contradiction that exists with the term environmental security as militaries and warfare have devastating effects upon the environment
• War also results in money being spent on other things when it could be spent on social and environmental activities with positive impacts
• Militaries also have significant environmental impacts in peacetime
• i.e. Nuclear weapons in Japan, extraction of resources to sustain conflict- diamonds in Sierra Leone, on average the US military uses 48,000,000 L of fuel per day
• Can militaries have a positive role in environmental protection and recovery?
• In the face of environmental change as a cause of conflict can we justify maintaining these institutions even if they impact the environment negatively

Question 6

Human Security

Answer 6

• One of teh six major interpretations regarding the environment and security according to Barnett
• Referent Object is the individual
• UNDP report 1994
• Environment poses significant challenges to individual security in terms of economics, health, food, basic survival etc.
• However, must take into accountability to adapt and mitigate, it is poor and developing countries who are most affected
• e.g. Tuvalu and rising sea levels, East Timor and soil erosion and infertility threatening the livelihoods of subsistence farmers

Question 7

Anthropocentrism

Answer 7

• A philosophical viewpoint arguing that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world… Anthropocentrism regrads humans as separate from and superior to nature and holds that human life has intrinsic value while other entities (including animals, plants, mineral resources, and so on) are resources that may justifiably be exploited for the benefit of humankind.”
• This has biblical (creationist) and Confucian origins, but is rejected by religions such as Daoism
• Highly Prominent ideology throughout the industrial revolution up until the beginning of the environmental movement began c. 1970s

Question 8

Eco-centrism

Answer 8

• The view or belief that the rights and needs of humans are not more important than those of other living things
• founding principle of environmental studies
• “A Land Ethic changes the role of Homo Sapians from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such”
• Aldo Leopold, “The Land Ethic” 1947

Question 9

Tragedy of the Commons

Answer 9

• Garrett Hardin
• One pasture for everyone, except that all herdsmen will try to keep as many animals on it as they can but over time this gets out of check and there is substantial growth in the number of cattle which in turn generates an environmental catastrophe
• Individuals have use of the resource (i.e. the land for grazing) but not ownership, thereby making it a commons
• Key for environmental studies
• Leans itself towards authoritarianism

Question 10

Precautionary Principle

Answer 10

• Is an approach to risk management that states that an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public, or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus (that the action of policy is not harmful), the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking that action
• Thus, in employing this approach any action that may cause environmental damage or harm cannot be carried out
• Key method to overcome the limits of scientific investigation
• Wissenburg uses this as a method by which liberalism can be ‘greened’
• i.e. GMOs particularly within the EU as they must be approved by regulators as safe before they can be sold

Question 11

Nationally Determined Contributions

Answer 11

• Concept for mitigating climate change whereby countries voluntarily put limitations upon their polluting actions
• These limitations are decided by the country alone
• First employed in the Paris Agreement
• Places the emphasis on each of the different countries rather than on we the world
• Key issue with this is whether it can actually create substantive change or whether it means that countries simply do enough to appear as though they are doing something so they cannot be critiqued by others
• For example, with regard to Paris Agreement numerous scientist have examined the Paris agreement and what actions countries have pledged, however, the majority have concluded that this action will not be enough to keep the increase in temperature to less than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels as the document sets out to do, let alone the optimum 1.5 degrees Celsius
• However, it could be useful in getting countries to take action as won’t want to look stupid or be shamed so will do what they said they would
• i.e. NZ’s target is to reduce emissions by 30 percent below 2005 levels by 2030

Question 12

Market Liberals

Answer 12

• Focus on economics
• No global environmental crisis yet but problems do exist
• These can be fixed by science, ingenuity, and money
• Key causes= poverty and weak economic growth, market failure and poor government policy
• Solutions= promotion of growth, globalization, alleviation of poverty, enhanced efficiency, correcting the market and policy failures, using market incentives to encourage clean technologies and promotion of voluntary corporate greening

Question 13

Institutionalists

Answer 13

• Focus on institutions as the key way to address environmental issues
• Potential for crisis unless we act now to enhance state capacity and improve effectiveness of regimes and global institutions
• Environmental issues caused by weak institution, inadequate global cooperation to correct issues, underdevelopment, perverse effects of state soverignty
• Solutions= Globalisation to enhance opportunities for cooperation, institutions norms and regimes, distribute effective technology, build state capacity, use the precautionary principle

Question 14

Bio-environmentalists

Answer 14

• Focuses on ecosystems and argues that we are near or beyond earth’s carrying capacity
• Causes of Environmental issues= humans instinct to overfill ecological space, as seen by overpopulation, excessive economic growth, and over-consumption
• Argues that globalization drives unsustainable growth, trade, investment and debt and accelerates depletion of natural resources and filling of sinks
• Solution= create a new global economy within limits to growth and reduce consumption, internalize the value of non-human life into institutions and policies, agree to collective coercion (e.g. some advocate world government) to control greed, exploitation, and reproduction

Question 15

Social Greens

Answer 15

• Believes a global environmental crisis currently exists
• Focuses on justice
• Argues that social injustice (caused by large-scale industrial life which fuels exploitation) at both local and global levels feed environmental crisis and unequal patterns of consumption are the key cause
• Believes that globalization accelerates exploitation and ecological injustice while also eroding local community autonomy
• Solution= reject industrialism and reverse economic globalization, restore local community autonomy and empower the marginalized, use indigenous knowledge systems and ecological justice