Terms

Question 1

Caliphate

Answer 1

Domain in which a caliph plays the leadership role. First caliphate/caliph was established after the death of Muhammed. Over time caliphs increasingly lost political and military control. Caliphates carved the way for empires to develop out of them, i.e Ottoman.

Question 2

Sunnis and Shiite (Shi’a)

Answer 2

Sunnis: believe that the first four caliphs–Mohammed’s successors–rightfully took his place as the leaders of Muslims. They recognize the heirs of the four caliphs as legitimate religious leaders. They believe the rightly guided caliphate has yet to emerge in history. Loss of the caliphate after WWI was devastating. Shiite: believe that only the heirs of the fourth caliph, Ali, are the legitimate successors of Mohammed. The rightly guided caliphate has already emerged and is in hiding, and Muslims need to wait for him to reappear. These

Question 3

Ottoman Empire

Answer 3

Muslim-Turkic Dynasty founded by Osman in 1299 that existed until the end of World War 1 Territory spanned from the Balkans to North Africa, to Iran. Known for it’s MIllet system, one of the first empires to form an official army (janissaries). Following its defeat in WWI, much of tis territory was divided among the victorious European nations through the mandate system.

Question 4

Safavid Empire

Answer 4

The Safavid dynasty was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history. The Safavid shahs ruled over one of the so-called gunpowder empires. 1501-1722. Established a state whose boundaries roughly coincided with the boundaries of present-day Iran and the population of Persia became members of the Shi’a branch of Islam.

Question 5

Quran

Answer 5

The central religious text of Islam. Believed that the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammed over a period of years, which served as the basis for the beginning of Islamic history.

Question 6

Ulema

Answer 6

Body of Muslim scholars recognized as having knowledge of Islamic sacred law and theology. Islamic clergy. No different from other believers who study religion and enjoy a privileged spiritual status.

Question 7

Shariah Law

Answer 7

Muslim religious law which dictated and still dictates the family law in many countries with Islamic rule.

Question 8

Millet system

Answer 8

Ottoman administrative system that allowed religious minorities autonomy to manage their affairs, such as in the collection of taxes and managing their own educational, religious, and judicial institutions. The long durability of the Empire and the peaceful relations between different communities in a highly diverse society is attributed to the millet system.

Question 9

Janissaries

Answer 9

Unified, professional army of Ottomans established. First time Ottomans created a centralized army loyal only to the Sultan in order to protect territories of the empire.

Question 10

Mehmet (Muhammed) Ali

Answer 10

Ruler of Egypt who established a dynasty there until 1953. Played a big role in establishing defensive developmentalism in Egypt, by restructuring the military and economy (abolished tax farming, cultivation of cash crops). Was one of the first leaders of Middle East who realized their survival depended on the ability to modernize/centralize. Ultimately his policies failed in preserving Egyptian autonomy.

Question 11

Mandate system

Answer 11

An administrative system established by the League of Nations whereby more “advanced” states would supervise the development of less advanced peoples to prepare them to face the “conditions of the modern world”. Came into being after the Ottoman empire dissolved, represented the justification European states made for intervention into the Middle East at this time and the fact that European states believed they were superior in every way to the people of this region.

Question 12

Suez Canal

Answer 12

A man–made canal built during Mehmet Ali’s reign in Egypt that connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. Represented the initial success of defensive developmentalism in Egypt and a desire for internal improvements, while reducing the distance that merchant trips travelled by half. Also represented the outsized ambitions of Ali, in borrowing from European bankers, that led to his downfall.

Question 13

Sykes-Picot Agreement

Answer 13

Secret agreement in 1916 between GB and France which defined the spheres of influence on territories on the Middle East. Russia approved the agreement. GB got control of Jordan and the southern part of Iraq, while France gained control over Syria, Lebanon, Southeastern Turkey and Northern Iraq. Symbolized the role outside powers played in determining the borders of states in the Arab Middle East.

Question 14

Armenian Genocide

Answer 14

Between 600,000 and 1.2 million Armenians perished from the Ottoman empire as a result of ethnic cleansing. Armenians believed the Ottoman government planned the genocide. Represents the tremendous consequences WWI had on reshaping populations in the Middle East, the “unmixing of peoples” (wholesale restructuring of populations) and as a result it made the landmass of Turkey more Muslim.

Question 15

Defensive Developmentalism

Answer 15

Policy of centralization and “modernization” undertaken by governments of the Middle East to strengthen their power and promote economic activity. First step was military reform, followed by fiscal (new tax collection system), educational, and administrative (centralization) reforms. Seen across Ottoman empire. Encouraged European military expansion and economic expansion, weakening the states and leading to imperialism in Middle East.

Question 16

Maronite

Answer 16

Member of Christian sect, mainly in Lebanon. Caused the intervention of European states into Mount Lebanon as a result of a conflict that pitted Maronite Christians against their Muslim neighbors during the rise in Muslim/minority tensions in the nineteenth century.

Question 17

Tax-farming

Answer 17

Initially used by Ottoman and Safavid empires to collect revenue, process in which agent pays taxes for a given territory/industry up front and as a result, he is allowed to extract surplus from that territory/industry. As a result of defensive developmentalism, in which rulers need to expand their sources of revenue to support modern army, the eliminated tax farmers who sapped resources from the state.

Question 18

Constitutionalism

Answer 18

During modernization of empires into nation-states, many adopted a constitution to consolidate the policies of empire/state. First time the idea that the power of the executives should be limited, that rules should apply to all, citizens and rulers. Was a key component of state modernization.

Question 19

Sectarianism

Answer 19

Creation of religious identities, attachment to a particular sect. One of the factors that led to the decline of the Ottoman empire, as it helped strengthen religious identities that were previously unified.

Question 20

Ottomanism

Answer 20

Political ideology that promoted greater political engagement and equality (in millets) in the empire, loosely called Ottoman nationalism. Allowed people to identify themselves as Ottoman with the intent to unify the empire, but ultimately failed because of a lack of widespread education.

Question 21

Imperialism/colonialism

Answer 21

The policy of extending control over foreign entities thru direct or indirect political/economic intervention. Colonialism is a system in which a state claims sovereignty over a territory/resources beyond its borders, ruling the local population (Tunisia.) Let to the emergence of nationalism, political Islam, and the hardening of communal boundaries in subjected states.