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Praxis II Biology > Terms > Flashcards

Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

theory vs. law

A

a law is a universal generalization related to how the natural world behaves under certain conditions. is testable, internally consistent, compatible with available evidence.

a theory is an explanation of a particular phenomenon of the natural world. explains aspects of laws, doesn’t become laws

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2
Q

Nature of scientific knowledge

A

Durability: withstands the test of time

Tentativeness: the development of new technologies/perseverance of continued observation and testing

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3
Q

Precision

A

when repeated measurements show the same results

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4
Q

Accuracy

A

how close a measurement is to the real/perceived value

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5
Q

Compound

A

when 2 or more different atoms bond together chemically to form a unique substance

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6
Q

Simple combination reaction

A

the reverse of a decomposition (A + B → C)

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7
Q

Replacement reaction

A

when 1 compound breaks apart and forms a new compound with a free reactant

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8
Q

1st law of thermodynamics

A

the law of conservation of matter and energy - matter and energy can neither be created nor destroyed

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9
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics

A

the law of increasing disorder/entropy - all reactions spread energy, which tends to diminish its availability

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10
Q

The cell theory

A
  1. All living things are made of 1 or more cells
  2. Cells are the basic units of life
  3. All cells come from preexisting cells
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11
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

network of membranous channels. Doesn’t have attached ribosomes. Responsible for processing lipids, fats, steroids; where are dispersed by the golgi apparatus

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12
Q

Light reaction (photolysis)

A

a decomposition reaction; chlorophyll a absorbs a photon of light and gets excited. Water molecules separated into their ions. O2 released as gas. H+ grabbed by H acceptor. Produces ATP from ADP and Pi

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13
Q

Dark reaction (carbon fixation)

A

in stroma of chloroplast. 6CO2 molecules linked with H from photolysis to form glucose, which is linked to form polysaccharides

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14
Q

Glycolysis

A

glucose (6C) + 2ADP + 2Pi+ 2NAD+ –> 2pyruvate (3C) + 2ATP + 2NADH+ + 2H+

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15
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Krebs cycle: occurs in mitochondrial matrix. Breaks down pyruvate into CO2, H+, and 2ATP. Liberates electrons

Electron transport chain: series of cytochromes on cristae (protein + heme), either oxidized or reduced. Energy stored in ATP. produces 32 ATPs per glucose molecule. Last step occurs when H20 produced

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16
Q

Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

A

breaks down 2 pyruvates into ethyl alcohol C3H6O3 plus CO2. gains 2 ATPs per molecule of glucose

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17
Q

Structural genes

A

code proteins that form organs/structural characteristics

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18
Q

Regulatory genes

A

code proteins that determine functional/physiological events (growth)

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19
Q

transduction vs. transformation

A

transduction: the transfer of genetic material from 1 bacterial cell to another, medicated by a bacteriophage
transformation: when 1 bacteria absorb/incorporate pieces of DNA from their environment (usually from dead bacterial cells)

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20
Q

nucleosomes

A

subunits that make long chains that form chromosomes

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21
Q

law of segregation

A

traits are expressed from a pair of genes in the individual (on homologous chromosomes)

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22
Q

law of dominance

A

one gene usually expressed itself over the other

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23
Q

law of independent assortment

A

homologous chromosomes separate independently during gamete formation

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24
Q

autosomal recessive disorders

A

ex. cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia. 2 inherited copies required

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25
Q

Rett syndrome and rickets

A

diseases caused by dominant mutation on the X chromosome

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26
Q

carrying capacity (K)

A

the limited no. of organisms that an ecosystem can support. once reached, competition occurs

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27
Q

gene pool

A

the entire collection of genes within a given population

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28
Q

allopatric speciation

A

when 2 populations are geographically isolated from each other

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29
Q

sympatric speciation

A

speciation without a geographic separation, when a population develops members with genetic differences which prevents successful reproduction with the original species

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30
Q

adaptive radiation

A

over time, species will specially adapt to live more efficiently in their new environment

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31
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

speciation events are punctuated/interspersed with periods of relative stasis (as opposed to the older model - gradualism - which would predict smooth, continuous transitions)

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32
Q

balanced polymorphism

A

work in order to keep any particular version within a species from dominating, unless that particular version is fitter

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33
Q

oparian hypothesis

A

proposed that earth was 4.6 billion years old and that early earth had a reducing atmosphere (very little free O2 present) abundance of NH3, H+, CH3, and H20 escaping from volcanoes

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34
Q

homologous vs. analogous

A

homologous: strucures that exist in 2 different species because they share common ancestry
analogous: commonly functioning structures without common ancestry - the product of CONVERGENT evolution

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35
Q

altruism

A

social behavior where organisms place the needs of the community over their own needs

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36
Q

Linnaeus classification

A 
domain
-archaea
-eubacteria
-eukaryota
----protista
----fungi
----animalia
----plantae
kingdom
class
order
family
genus
species
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37
Q

9 phyla of kingdom animalia

A 
porifera
cnidaria
platyhelminthes
nematoda
mollusca
annelida
arthropoda
echinodermata
chordata (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, lampreys)
subphyla:
--urochordata
--cephalochordata
--vertebrata
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38
Q

superclasses of vertebrata

A 
agantha (no jaws)
gnathostomata (jaws)
1. chondrichthyes
2. osteichthyes
3. amphibia
4. reptilia
5. aves
6. mammalia
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39
Q

chondrichthyes

A

fish with cartalagenous endoskeleton, 2 chambered heart, 5-7 gill pairs, no swim bladder/lungs, internal fertilization

ex. sharks, reys

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40
Q

mammalia

A

body covered with hair, glands, teeth, fleshy ears, 4 limbs, 4 chambered heart, lungs, larynx, developed brain, warm blooded, internal fertilization, live birth, milk producing

ex. cows, humans

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41
Q

sepals

A

small green leaf like structures which fold back to reveal flower petals (which are usually brightly colored to attract birds and insects to be pollinated)

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42
Q

pedicel

A

the short branch of the stem which supports the flower

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43
Q

female angiosperm

A

PISTIL includes:

stigma: sticky surface at top which traps pollen grains. sits above the style
style: encloses ovary
ovary: hollow, bulb shaped structure in lower interior of pistil - becomes fruit
ovules: small round cases within ovary that contain 1+ egg cells. during meiosis, egg & polar body formed which becomes endosperm when fertilized

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44
Q

male angiosperm

A

STAMEN includes:

anther on top of long hollow filament, which has 4 lobes with cells that become pollen

pollen grains conveyed to flower, stick to stigma

pollen tube: burrowing of pollen

nucleus: developed portion of pollen grain, produces tube

sperm nuclei: behind the tube nucleus. fertilization when they reach an egg cell. other fuses with polar bodies to form endosperm (feeds growing embryo)

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45
Q

shoot apex

A

composed of meristem tissue (undifferentiated cells that can quickly grow/specialize) and is where elongation occurs. the location of the terminal bud - the beginning of a new set of leaves. last year’s terminal bud is the terminal bud scar

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46
Q

seed

A

contains tiny embryonic plant, stored food, and seed coat for protection. germinates in the right conditions

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47
Q

amphibia

A

animal with bony skeleton, 4 limbs with webbed feet and 4 toes, cold blooded (ectothermic), large mouth/small teeth, 3 chambered heart, separate sexes, internal or external fertilization, amniotic egg

ex. salamander, frog

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48
Q

reptilia

A

horny epidermal scales, paired limbs with 5 toes, bony skeleton, lungs (no gills), 3 chambered heart, cold blooded (ectothermic), internal fertilization, separate sexes, egg laying (oviparious) - eggs with extra amniotic membranes

ex. snakes, lizards, alligators

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49
Q

aves

A

spindle shaped body, long neck, paired limbs, wings, 4 toed foot, feathers, leg scales, bony skeleton, bones with air cavities, beak, no teeth, 4 chambered heart, endothermic (warm blooded), lungs with thin air sacs, separate sexes, eggs with hard calcified shells

ex. birds, ducks, sparrows

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50
Q

kin selection

A

the tendency of an individual to be altruistic toward a close relative, resulting in preservation of genetic traits

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51
Q

osteichthyes

A

fish with bony skeleton, numerous vertebrae, swim bladder, 2 chambered heart, gills with bony gill and arches, external fertilization

ex. herring, carp, tuna

52
Q

cud

A

chewed vegetation that gets regurgitated from the 1st stomach chambers then gets chewed again (mechanical breakdown of food)

53
Q

crop

A

an organ of many invertebrates that stores food until it is processed for absorption

54
Q

cardiac muscle

A

cells with branched endings that interlock with each other, keeping muscle fibers from ripping apart during contractions

55
Q

visceral sensory nerves

A

carry impulses from the body organs to the CNS

56
Q

somatic sensory organs

A

carry impulses from the body surface to the CNS

57
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

carry impulses that stimulate organs (as opposed to the parasympathetic nervous system, which carries impulses back from organs)

58
Q

forebrain

A

the most anterior part, contains olfactory bulbs (sense of smell), cerebrum (sensory/motor response, memory, speech, intelligence)

thalamus: integrates senses
hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, BP, temp

pituitary gland: hormone release

59
Q

midbrain:

A

contains optic lobes (connected via optic nerves)

60
Q

hindbrain

A

consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata

61
Q

bile

A

produced in the liver. aids in digesting fats; carries away broken down pigments and chemicals (from pollutants/medication), then secretes them into the small intestine

62
Q

spermatogenesis

A

diploid primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I and form haploid secondary spermatocytes with single chromosome set. then go thru meiosis II and form haploid spermatids which develop into sperm cells

63
Q

oogenesis

A

primary oocytes in ovaries undergo meiosis I, form 1 secondary oocyte and 1 smaller polar body. both undergo meiosis II - the oocyte produces 1 haploid egg cells and another polar body (3 now)

64
Q

embryonic development

A

morula (cluster of cells) –> blastula (thin mayer of cells surrounding internal cavity) –> gastrula (2 layered cup shape) which becomes double layered tube

65
Q

germ layers

A

ectoderm: skin, endocrine glands, nervous system
endoderm: gut lining/accessory structures
mesoderm: muscles; organs of skeletal, circulatory, respiratory, reproductive, excretory

66
Q

chorion

A

extraembryonic membrane #1. lies in contact with innermost surface of shell in egg laying vertebrates - in other vertebrates, is the outermost membrane surrounding embryo in contact with the uterus

regulates passage of H2O/gases from embryo to environment. in embryos without shells, also to move nutrients and waste

67
Q

amnion

A

within the chorion. filled with amniotic fluid which cushions the embryo, keeps temps constant. fluid keeps amniotic membrane from sticking to developing embryo

68
Q

allantios

A

the 3rd membrane that arises from developing digestive tract - becomes part of umbilical cord in humans - contains BVs for gas/nutrient exchange between fetus and mother

in egg laying reptiles, is waste reservoir. fuses with chorion to form chorioallantoic membrane that regulates gas exchange

69
Q

yolk sac membrane

A

encloses yolk sac that forms developing digestive tract and becomes part of umbilical cord. stores nutrients for embryo to use. gives rise to gametes

70
Q

parthenogenesis

A

type of asexual reproduction that doesn’t require fertilization by males to form an embryo/develop

ex. fish, sharks, reptiles

71
Q

“=spheres”

A

biosphere - all living things of earth
atmosphere - air
lithosphere - ground
hydrosphere - water

72
Q

ecosystem

A

a group of populations within a given locality plus the inanimate environment

73
Q

population

A

the total number of a single species of organism in a given ecosystem

74
Q

community

A

populations that interact with each other in a particular ecosystem

75
Q

hydrologic cycle

A
  • water evaporates from bodies of water into clouds via solar radiation (also released from vegetation via transpiration)
  • water underground flows into aquafiers - empty into oceans
  • water is redistributed over land via clouds (precipitation)
76
Q

greenhouse gas

A

reflects radiation from Earth’s surface back towards the earth and traps it as heat

77
Q

nitrogen fixing

A

makes N available for absorption by roots. the process of combining gaseous N2 with H or O to form a non-gas compound to be used directly by plants

these bacteria live in soil, make NH4+

78
Q

nitrification

A

process that further breaks down NH3 into nitrites NO2- and nitrates NO3-

79
Q

ammonification

A

large amounts of N are returned to the Earth by bacteria and fungi, which decompose dead plant and animal matter into ammonia

80
Q

denitrification

A

bacteria and fungi break down excess nitrates to release N2 gas back into the air

81
Q

fossil fuels

A

when burned for energy, the combustion process releases CO2 back into the atmosphere where plants use it for photosynthesis

82
Q

natality

A

birth rate

83
Q

mortality

A

death rate

84
Q

2 models of population growth

A

exponential curve: J curve - no environmental/social limit to population size, only occurs during initial growth

logistic curve: S curve - limiting factors

85
Q

limiting factors

A

the biotic and abiotic factors that determine how much a particular population within a community will be able to grow

86
Q

density independent factors

A

abiotic limiting factors

87
Q

range

A

the total area occupied by a species

88
Q

dispersion

A

species may move in or out of a particular area

emigration, immigration, or migration

89
Q

ammensalism

A

a type of symbiosis where 1 species is neither helped nor harmed while it inhibits the growth of another species

90
Q

closed community

A

one whose populations occupy essentially the same range with very similar distributions of density

91
Q

ecotones

A

boundaries of closed communities (ex. pond aquatic ecosystem ends at the shore)

92
Q

open community

A

has infinite boundaries, populations have varying ranges and densities (ex. forest), species are more widely distributed, animals may travel in and out of an area

93
Q

succession

A

when 1 community completely replaces another over time in a given area - occurs in terrestrial and aquatic biomes

94
Q

pioneer communities

A

the first populations that move back into a disturbed ecosystem - tend to be hardy species that can survive in bleak conditions

95
Q

climax community

A

when succession ends in a stable community

96
Q

biogeography

A

the study of how photosynthetic organisms and animals are distributed in a particular location plus the history of their distribution in the past

97
Q

ethology

A

how animals act and react within their environments - “behavior”

98
Q

innate behaviors

A

the actions of animals that are instincts, are highly stereotyped - all individuals of a species perform these behaviors in the same way

  1. taxes
  2. kineses
  3. reflexes
  4. fixed action patterns (FAP)
99
Q

taxes

A

directional responses towards/away from a stimulus

100
Q

kineses

A

changes in speed of movement in response to a stimuli

101
Q

reflexes

A

automatic movement of a body part in response to a stimulus

102
Q

fixed action patterns (FAP)

A

complex, but stereotyped response to a stimulus. not learned

a pre-programmed response to a releaser/sign stimulus

ex. courtship behaviors, circadian rhythms, feeding of young

103
Q

habituation

A

learned behavior where an organism produces less and less response as a stimulus is repeated

104
Q

imprinting

A

a learned behavior that develops in a critical or sensitive period of the animals lifespan

generally involves learning a new releaser for an established FAP

105
Q

society

A

an organization of individuals of a population in which tasks are divided in order for the group to work together

106
Q

cotyledon

A

where food is stored in a seed

2=dicots - oaks/flowers/vegetables. 
branched/networked veins
vascular bundles in rings
taproots with smaller secondary roots
petals in 4s or 5s
1=monocots - grass, lillies, palm trees
parallel veins
random vascular bundles
fibrous roots
petals in 3's
107
Q

nodes

A

the locations along the stem where leaves sprout (internode is in between)

108
Q

lateral buds

A

what new leaves begin as

109
Q

xylem

A

long, tubular cells which transport water up from the ground to the branches and leaves

110
Q

phloem

A

stacked cells connected by sieve plates which allow nutrients to pass from cell to cell, transports food made by leaves to the rest of the plant

111
Q

palisade layer

A

uppermost layer that contains vertically aligned cells with numerous chloroplasts. maximizes exposure to sunlight - where photosynthesis occurs

112
Q

spongy layer

A

below palisade layer - a layer of parenchyma cells separated by large air spaces which allow for gas exchange (CO2 and O2) for photosynthesis

113
Q

regions of roots

A

maturation region: differentiate into various root tissues

elongation region: cells differentiate, vacuoles grow, cells grow

meristematic region: undifferentiated cells that carry out mitosis

root cap: dead, thick walled cells that protect the root as it pushes through soil

114
Q

parenchyma

A

constitutes cortex (beneath epidermis) thin walled cells loosely packed, allow for flow of gases and mineral uptake

115
Q

endodermis

A

a ring inside the cortex - single layer of cells tightly connected - nothing can pass thru. allows it to act as a filter

116
Q

vascular cylinder

A

in the center of the root, includes xylem and phloem

117
Q

C3 plants

A

over 95% of all plants use rubisco to make 3C compound during carbon fixation. cool, damp, cloudy climates

118
Q

C4 plants

A

(grasses, sugar caine, maize) very low rate of carbon loss thru photorespiration. hot and dry environments, efficient water use

119
Q

sporophyte

A

diploid (2n) generation - produce gametophytes via meiosis (haploid)

120
Q

vegetative propagation

A

asexual reproduction - occurs only through mitosis (no gametes) - offspring genetically identical to parents

121
Q

reproductive structures of plants

A

tubers: underground storage stems which develop new shoots
rhizomes: underground runners, become new plant
stolens: above ground runners, grow roots of their own then become new plant
bulbs: underground storage, grow into new plants via division
corms: resemble bulbs with enlarged solid stem for food storage

122
Q

plant hormones

A

giberellins: cell division/elongation
cytokinins: cell division, fruit development

abscisic acid: open/close stomata

ethylene: fruit ripening, metabolic activity
auxins: growth factors

123
Q

tropism

A

involuntary response of an organism to external stimuli (light, water, gravity, nutrients)

124
Q

egestion

A

the elimination of indigestible materials

125
Q

alimentary canal

A

the GI tract: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI, rectum, anus

accessory organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands liver, gallbladder, pancreas

126
Q

ruminants

A

vertebrates (cow and deer) that consume large amounts of vegetation

Praxis II Biology (1 decks)

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