Terms

Question 1

Spheres

Answer 1

Collections of people who have a shared sense of what makes a good argument.

Question 2

Claim

Answer 2

A statement you want others to accept and act upon.

Question 3

Issue

Answer 3

Two opposing claims stated as a question.

Question 4

Proposition

Answer 4

A claim that states what one is being asked to accept or reject.

Question 5

Argumentation

Answer 5

The communicative process of advancing, supporting, criticizing, and modifying claims so that appropriate decision makers, defined by relevant spheres, may grant or deny adherence.

Question 6

The definition of Argumentation includes the ongoing process of the following:

Answer 6

1. Advancing claims
2. Accepting claims
3. Modifying claims
4. Rejecting claims

Question 7

When to refute (and when not to)

Answer 7

1. First, establish rapport and build credibility.
2. Don’t wait too long: decision maker’s positions are already too embedded to change.
3. Don’t refute too soon: The decision makers can’t appreciate your refutation.

Question 8

When is refutation most effective?

Answer 8

1. It takes the proposal seriously
2. The decision makers have been clearly identified.
3. It suggests that not all of the other alternatives have been explored.
4. It aims at the highest conceptual level.
5. It argues a constructive position.
6. It restates one’s own position.
7. It concentrates on points that remain open in the decision maker’s mind.

Question 9

Format for refutation

Answer 9

1. State the point to be refuted.
2. State your claim relative to this point.
3. Support your claim.
4. State explicitly how this claim weakens the argument of those you are refuting.

Question 10

PATHOS

Answer 10

-Appeal to emotions. Look over lecture notes for this one.

Question 11

ETHOS: Aspects of Credibility

Answer 11

1. Sincerity/Trustworthiness
2. Competence
3. Goodwill
4. Dynamism

Question 12

ETHOS: How it is built

Answer 12

1. Find as many genuine points of agreement as possible, especially where values are concerned.
2. Show that the claim is in keeping with the decision makers’ values.
3. If the claim is contrary to some of the decision maker’s values: show how it is consistent with other values and show how the opposition is proposing a misleading system of values.
4. Avoid preaching to the audience. Don’t use too many value-intensive arguments.

Question 13

ETHOS: How it is lost

Answer 13

1. Attacking the Ethos of an opponent or opposing side.

2. Being insincere.

Question 14

ETHOS: Types of Credibility

Answer 14

1. Direct: What one says about own self.
2. Secondary: Associating the credibility of others with self and often developed when using testimonial evidence. Sometimes established by sources the decision makers respect.
3. Indirect (MOST forceful): Developed by the way that claims are developed, supported, and argued. The more effective the argument, the more Ethos is built.