Terms Flashcards
1
Q
Grass Structure:
A
- Blade
- Spikelet
- Culm
- Sheath
- Rhizome
- Stolon
- Roots
2
Q
Gluten
A
- Chemically, gluten is a general term for storage proteins in various grains composed of two types of proteins:
- Prolamin (gliadun in wheat)
- Glutelin (glutenin in wheat)
3
Q
Bioaccumulation vs Biomagnification
A
- Bioaccumulation: If an animal cannot break down a pollutant in its food, the concentration in its body will increase over time
- Biomagnification: If a pollutant is bioaccumulated, predators will ingest a higher concentration in their food, relative to prey
4
Q
Fruit vs Achene
A
- Key difference b/w achenes and grains = fruit wall is fused to the seed coat
5
Q
DDT History and effect
A
- DDT: persistent insecticide and carcinogen
- Widespread use in agriculture after WWII
- Banned in developed countries (1968-1984)
- Banned globally (2004)
- Current pesticides are less dangerous than DDT
- Pests continually evolve resistance
6
Q
inflorescence
A
i.e. Asher family
Determinate: limited potential for growth b/c the apex is occupied by a flower
indeterminate: Terminal position not occupied by a flower (lower flowers open first)
7
Q
Pseudobulb
A
- storage structure that resembles a bulb (but different)
- pseudobulbs are swellings in an internode
i.e. some orchids
8
Q
what are stolons?
A
stolons:
a modified stem that spreads along the surface of the ground, can root at the nodes
(i.e. spider plant)
9
Q
Rhizomes?
A
similar to a stolon but underground
-a modified stem that spreads underground and can root at the nodes
10
Q
Tubers?
A
an underground storage structure that grows a the tip of a rhizome
11
Q
what is a coppice?
A
in some woody plants, cutting or killing the main stem encourages the roots to regenerate new stems
12
Q
Apomixis ?
A
Asexual development of a seed or embryo from maternal cells without fertilization
i.e. Dandelion seeds, apples seeds
13
Q
bulbs?
A
underground storage structure made of a bud enclosed by modified scale leaves
- internodes are extremely reduced
i.e.
lillies and onions
14
Q
what do we consider plants?
A
- What we call plant is part of the chlorobionta (Green Plants) branch of the evolutionary tree
15
Q
what is evolution ?
A
Decent with modification - heritable traits
16
Q
origin of mitochondria ?
A
- endosymbiosis
- when there is a eukaryote and a bacteria and the bacteria is engulfed by the eukaryotes and they become symbiotic
17
Q
origin of chloroplast?
A
○ Cyanobacteria engulfed = endosymbiosis
○ Evolved in bacteria
18
Q
Evolutionary tree
A
- Eukaryotes
- Prokaryotes
- Eubacteria
- Archaea
Fungi
19
Q
what is Algae
A
Algae are defined as a group of predominantly aquatic, photosynthetic, and nucleus-bearing organisms that lack the true roots, stems, leaves
- Euglenozoa * Dinoflagellates
20
Q
Definition for plants?
A
- The Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates by means of energy capture by a variety of pigments (always including chlorophylls a/b) and releasing O2
- (Photosynthesis)
- Evolved from cyanobacteria
21
Q
Cuticle
A
waxy outer layer to prevent water loss
○ Also inhibits gas exchange
○ Later stomates evolve to allow gas exchange to occur (guard cells)
22
Q
what are seeds ?
A
a plant embryo and nutrient reserve enclosed in a protective casing (seed coat)
23
Q
conifers vs angiosperms ?
A
conifers:
woody, resin, ornamentals
Angiosperms:
flowering plants
24
Q
flowers
A
- The reproductive structure of an angiosperm
- Flowers include an ovary in which the seed develops
- Many flowers also include non-reproductive structure (e.g. petals, sepals) which may attract pollinators
Two main groups
- Monocots
-dicots
25
Fruit Types
Fleshy Fruits → Grape, apple, cherry, orange, squash
Dry Fruits → Corn, sunflower, maple, walnut, beans, milkweed
26
Types of Dry Fruits:
Dehiscent (Splitting Open) → Beans, milkweeds, poppy
Indehiscent (Not Splitting Open) → Corn, sunflower, maple, walnut
27
Describe the structure of a monocot seed, such as corn or wheat?
Has a seed coat for protection.
A single cotyledon,
characteristic of monocots, which helps with nutrient absorption rather than storage.
A single ovule, which develops into the seed.
A triploid endosperm, which provides stored energy for the developing seedling.
28
Fava Bean (Dicot)
Two cotyledons → Each nut half = one cotyledon
No endosperm at maturity (used for early growth)
Radicle, Hypocotyl, Epicotyl → Together form embryo
29
Stamen:
○ Anther (pollen present)
○ Filament
30
Types of Corn
Dent
Flint
Pop
Sweet
31
Dent corn
○ Dent corn is the most widely grown type used for animal feed, corn starch, corn flour, and high fructose corn syrup
32
pop corn
○ Starch: energy storage in plants
○ Higher amylose concentration makes a harder starch
○ Heat--> steam --> increases pressure
** Amylopectin – branched
* * Amylose - unbranched
33
Inbreeding depression
reduced vigor and performance of offspring resulting from repeated self-pollination or mating between closely related individuals, leading to increased homozygosity and the expression of deleterious recessive traits
34
sweet corn
- High in sugar and low in starch
- picked/eaten fresh
- there is higher amylopectin concentrations (making it softer)
- lower amylose concetrations
35
Two important corn mutations:
1. Non-shattering spike (kernels remain on the cob)
2. Softened fruit wall
36
mysteries of corn
- It cannot survive without human intervention
- No wild relatives look like it
- Where and when did it evolve?
- Why did humans domesticate its ancestor?
37
fermentation process
- A set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules (e.g. glucose) into smaller units with organic compounds
- * No Oxygen
- * No anaerobic electron transport chain
- * Partial breakdown → low energy release
38
How to make Tofu
Soak dried beans in water
Make soy milk
Add coagulant, making it curdle, forming curd (solid) and whey (liquid)
Separate the curds using a cheesecloth or fine mesh
Place curds in mold and press them to remove excess liquid,
Cool to firm up
39
How to make Soy Sauce ?
1. Koji Production (Mold Cultivation)
- A mold (Aspergillus sp., known as Koji in Japanese) is grown on soybeans.
- The mold produces enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids and starches into sugars
2. Fermentation Process
Lactic acid bacteria → Carry out lactic acid fermentation
Yeast (unicellular fungi) → Carry out ethanol fermentation
Salt → Inhibits unwanted microbial growth
40
Forage Crops are?
- Crops grown to feed domestic animals
- Many grasses and some legumes
41
Unique Properties of Gluten
Glutenin + Gliadin → Forms visco-elastic matrix
Helps dough rise & hold shape
Causes celiac disease in some individuals
42
Evolution & Domestication of Wheat
Shift from hulled, shattering wheat → non-hulled, non-shattering wheat
Moisture content determines end use:
Low moisture → Pasta
High moisture → Bread
43
Wheat Processing
Steps: Reaping, gathering, threshing, winnowing, milling
Roller mill (1870): Separates germ & endosperm → refined flour
44
Nutritional Considerations
of WHeat
Whole grain flour: Contains bran, germ, & endosperm
Refined flour: Only endosperm (often enriched with nutrients)
45
Environmental Impacts of Wheat Production
Synthetic Fertilizers
Aquifer Depletion
Pesticides
46
Chloroplast RXNS
Light-dependent reactions
- take place on the thylakoid membrane
Energy source: Light
Energy outputs
- 2 NADP+ → 2 NADPH
- 3 ADP → 3 ATP
Light-independent reactions - occur in the stroma
Calvin cyle:
Energy sources:
12 NADH → 12 NADP+
18 ATP → 18 ADP
Energy output:
(1 glucose) C6H12O6
47
photorespiration
Photorespiration is a process in plants where oxygen is used instead of carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle, reducing photosynthetic efficiency.
48
two varieties of rice
- O Sativa var. is stickier with shortened grains
- Grows in temperate climate
- < 20% amylose
- Sushi rice
- sticky rice
- Var. Indica has longer grains
- Warmer climates
- 20-30% amylose
- Basmati rice
- Jasmine Rice
49
Rice botany:
- Bisexual
- Flowers
- C3
- Annual
- 1m tall
- Aerenchyma cells
- 1 floret
- Non-shattering
50
What are Rice paddies ?
Rice paddies are flooded fields of land used to grow rice. They are also known as paddy fields.
51
Azolla sp. use?
- Fern: often planted with rice
- Symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacteria - Anabaena azollae which fixes nitrogen
52
Synthetic Fertilizer production?
- 1909: German chemist Friz Haber and Carl Bosch synthesize ammonia (N2 + H2 -> NH3)
- N fertilizer production releases
* 1.13 Gt CO2e
* 2.1% of global GHG emissions
* 10.6% of agricultural emissions
53
aquifer depletion occurs when?
- Aquifer depletion happens when groundwater is pumped out of an aquifer faster than it can be replenished.
This can lead to a number of negative consequences, including dried-up wells and lower water levels in streams and lake
54
Bacillus thuringiensis is?
soil-dwelling bacteria
- Many strains produce insecticidal spores (called Bt δ-endotoxins)
- For a susceptible host ingesting Bt δ-endotoxins ruptures their gut
55
Photosystem II:
- The D1 subunit is involved in repairing oxidation damage
- Free electrons can produce reactive oxygen species which damage photosynthetic molecules
56
Indigo Tomato example:?
Cathie Martin (John Innes Centre, Norwich, England) added a transcription factor from snapdragon to make increase anthocyanin production in fruit
- Purple GM tomatoes increase the lifespan of cancer-prone mice by 30%
57
the structural difference between amylose and amylopectin?
Amylose is a linear polymer of α-(1→4)-linked glucose units, forming a helical structure,
Amylopectin is highly branched, consisting of α-(1→4)-linked glucose chains with α-(1→6) branch points
