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Terms Flashcards

1
Q

explain mitosis

A

2N cell divides to produce two 2N diploid daughter cells
(only in somatic cells -not sex cells)

prophase: chromosomes coil, condense
metaphase: line up in middle of cell
anaphase: chromatids pulled to opposite poles
telophase: cell splits into two daughter cells

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1
Q

explain meiosis

A

M1 (separates homologous chromosomes): 2N cell splits into two 2N haploid daughter cells
M2 (separates sister chromatids): both split to result in 4 haploid (1N) cells
(only in germ cells-sex cells)

Prophase I: crossing over of sister chromatids, condensing/coiling
Metaphase I: bivalents line up in middle
Anaphase I: bivalents pulled to opposite sides
Telophase I: cell pinches to form 2 diploid cells (each with 2 bivalents now)

Prophase II: same as prophase 1
metaphase II: line up in middle of cell
Anaphase II: sister chromatids pulled apart
Telophase II: splits into 4 haploid cells

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2
Q

null/amorphic alleles

A

LOSS OF FUNCTION MUTATION: a nonfunctional protein is produced or no protein is produced

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3
Q

hypermorphic alleles

A

GAIN OF FUNCTION MUTATION: a poorly functioning protein is produced

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4
Q

when do you use multiplication rule?

A

when calculating probability of 2+ independent events occurring together (and)

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5
Q

when do you use addition rule?

A

calculating probability of 1+ mutually exclusive events (or)

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6
Q

dominant hyperamorphic alleles

A

negative phenotypical consequences due to over production of a normal protein or from production of protein with increased activity levels

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7
Q

neomorphic alleles

A

mutation alters protein’s function resulting in negative phenotypical consequences

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8
Q

autosomal recessive traint

A

skips generations
equal frequency
must inherit both alleles

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9
Q

autosomal dominant trait

A

doesn’t skip generations
equal frequency
must inherit only 1 copy

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10
Q

x-linked recessive

A

freq in males (only need one)
skips gen

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11
Q

x-linked dominant

A

both affected females more
doesn’t skip gen

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12
Q

incomplete dominance

A

intermediate, between both parents

ex: white flower x red flower= pink flower

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13
Q

co-dominance

A

see both traits expressed

ex: white flower x red flower= white and red flower petals

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14
Q

haplosufficiency

A

1/2 of protein is enough to express normal phenotype

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15
Q

haploinsufficient

A

1/2 of protein is not enough to express normal phenotype

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16
Q

recessive and dominant lethal alleles

A

recessive:
-essential genes that when mutated lead to death
-more common, only expresses in homozygous, YY is lethal, Yy and yy not
dominant:
-expressed in hetero and homo
-Bb and BB lethal, bb not

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17
Q

penetrance

A

number of individuals having specific genotype that expresses expected phenotype

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18
Q

expressivity

A

degree to which a phenotype is expressed (mild-severe)

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19
Q

complete and incomplete penetrance

A

complete: identical known genotypes yield 100% expected phenotype
incomplete: yields less than 100% of expected

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20
Q

constant expressivity

A

yield to expected phenotypes

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21
Q

variable expressivity

A

range of phenotypes

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22
Q

incomplete penetrance with variable expressivity

A

identical known genotypes produce broad range of phenotypes

23
Q

phenocopy

A

change in phenotype arising from environmental factors that mimic effects of a mutation in a gene

24
Q

complementation

A

2 strains of diff homozygous recessive mutations that produce same phenotype

25
Q

heterogenous trait

A

mutation in any one of the genes can rise to same phenotype

26
Q

epistasis

A

masking of expression of one gene by another, no new phenotype produced

27
Q

pleiotrophy

A

single gene can be responsible for a number of distinct phenoytypic effects

ex: cystic fibrosis is one gene but can affect different organs

28
Q
  1. monoploidy
  2. polyploidy (+issues)
  3. autopolyploids
  4. allopolyploids
A
  1. only one set of chromosomes
  2. more than one normal # of sets of chromosomes (3N, 4N etc.)
    -independent decisions, in Meiosis 1 can make trivalents or 2 copies of one and one of another
    Issues: usually sterile (odd number)
  3. chromosomee sets identical, more vegetative and bigger, generated through mistake in mitosis or meiosis, DNA doubled in one cell no cytokinesis
  4. result from cross of 2 closely related species
29
Q

aneuploidy

A

-irregular total # of chromosomes
-ex: 2N+1 trisomies

30
Q

aneuploid conditions with sex chromosomes

A

XO Turner syndrome (female)
XXY Klinefelter (males)
XXX Triple x
XYY Double y (non-disjunction in males)

31
Q

chromosome anomalies

A

-deletion or deficiency missing from chromosome segment
-duplication is an extra chromosome segment

32
Q

hypoploidy and hyperploidy

A

hypoploidy: less genetic material
hyperploidy: more genetic material

33
Q

rearrangements of chromosome structure

A

per centric inversion: same chromosome has inverted segment, forms loop to match up

translocation: occurs when a segment from one chromosome is detached and reattached to diff chromosome

reciprocal: pieces of 2 non-homologous chromosomes exchanged with no loss of net genetic material

robertsonian translocations: formed by fusion of 2 non-homologous chromosomes at their centromeres, can lead to diseases/cancer

34
Q

recombination vs crossing over

A

recombination=new allele combinations, not inherited
crossing over= physical crossing over to alleles, in prophase 1

35
Q

chromosome mapping equation

A

of recombinants x100= map units
# of offsprings

36
Q

bacteriophage

A

-infects bacterial cells
-protein head + large complex genome
-goes through lytic phase, lyses through cell to infect other cell

37
Q

reverse transcriptonase

A

reverse transcribe genome RNA to DNA to work with host

38
Q

lytic cycle

A

-phage binds to bacterium
-phage DNA enters host cell, digests and replicates
-host transcribes and translates phage DNA, produces phage proteins
-assembly of new phage complete
-phage-encoded enzyme causes cell to lyse
-new phages released
-repeats

39
Q

Lysogenic Cycle

A

-phage DNA enters host cell
-phage DNA integrates into bacterial chromosome, becomes a prophage
-prophage replicated as part of bacterial chromosome
-prophage may separate from chromosome and enters lytic cycle

40
Q

conjugation

A

-DNA replicates and transfers fro one cell to another through cytoplasmic bridge
-crossover leads to recombinant chromosome
-F- factor can be transmitted
-requires cell-to-cell contact

F-=recipient in conjugation *no fertility factor
F+=autonomous F factor, gives copy, donor
Hfr=integrated factor, donor

41
Q

transformation

A

-recipient DNA takes up DNA from environment
-crossover leads to creation of chromosomes
-sensitive to DNase

42
Q

transduction

A

-virus attached to bacterial cell, injects in DNA and replicates
-cell lyses
-crossover in recipient cell leads to recombinant chromosome

43
Q

DNA composition

A

AGCT

adenosine: purine
guanine: purine
cytosine: pyramidine
thymine: pyramidine

A+T, G+C

nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds
H bonds between bases, high GC content=more H bonds

44
Q

how is DNA supercoiled

A

one of 2 strands are cut, 360 degree rotation, sealed back with DNA ligase

45
Q

chromosome structure in eukaryotes

A

-one large linear molecule of DNA
-large amounts of 5 histones (highly positive charged proteins) and divergent grou of non-histone proteins

46
Q

3 levels of DNA packaging in chromatin

A
  1. nucleosomes
    -each nucleosome core have 146 nucleotide pairs wrapped as 1 3/4 turns around an octamer of histones
    -linker DNA joins cores
    -each core=2 molecules of each of 4 histones
    -complete nucleosome has Histone H1, hold double helix around the core
  2. 30 nm chromatin fiber
    -squishes nucleosome
  3. inter-phase chromosome
    -tethers protein scaffold made of non-histone proteins with 30 nm chromatin fibre of packed nucleosomes
    -open and accessible to transcription factor
47
Q

hypoamorphic

A

loss of function mutation

48
Q

hi erica you smell hehehehhe 😷🤢

A

jk 🥰

49
Q

episomes

A

type of plasmid, large circular DNA that can integrate autonomously into the bacterial chromosome or remain separate

50
Q

prototroph

A

organism that can produce its own inorganic nutrients, does not require organic material

51
Q

auxotroph

A

requires extra nutrients, unable to produce organic nutrients for growth

52
Q

restriction enzymes

A

in bacteria, cleaves foreign DNA at restriction sites (specific double-stranded sequences)

can result in sticky or blunt ends

53
Q

What do cloning plasmids require?

What are the steps of cloning

A
  1. multiple cloning sites (where external DNA can be inserteed)
  2. Origin of replication (allowing plasmid replication)
  3. selectable marker (allows researchers to select cell with the plasmid)
  4. Digest (plasmid + foreign DNA cleaved with RE)
  5. Ligation (both hybridize, DNA ligase forms phosphodiester bond to seal)
  6. transformation (ligates plasmid mixed with bacterial cells)
  7. Selection (only cells with plasmid will grow)
54
Q

recessive and dominant epistasis

A

recessive: homozygous recessives at one gene mask other gene

dominant: one allele masks other gene

MBG (3 decks)

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