Terms

Question 1

Motivation “Gets You Moving”

Answer 1

The needs, desires, feelings, and ideas that direct behavior toward a goal

-It is an urge to behave or act in a way that will satisfy certain conditions, such as wishes, desires, or goals

Question 2

Instinct

Answer 2

an innate and consistent pattern of complex behavior that is performed the same way by every member of the species

Question 3

Drive-reduction theory

Answer 3

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

-The greater the need, the stronger the drive

Question 4

Homeostasis

Answer 4

The body’s tendency to maintain an internal steady state of metabolism, to stay in balance

(+) Explains our motivation to reduce arousal by meeting basic needs, such as hunger or thirst

(-) Too simple to explain complex

Question 5

Incentive

Answer 5

External stimuli that motivate a behavior, sometimes the same behavior

Question 6

Hierarchy of needs

Answer 6

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory of motivation which states that five categories of human needs dictate an individual’s behavior.

Question 7

Arousal theory

Answer 7

Proposes that people and other animals are motivated to perform because they are trying to maintain optimal levels of physiological arousal, the state of being awake and alert.

Question 8

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 8

Increased arousal can help improve performance, but only up to a certain point. At the point when arousal becomes excessive, performance diminishes

-We tend to perform difficult or newly learned tasks better at a lower level of Arousal, but we tend to perform very easy or well-learned tasks at a higher level of arousal

Question 9

Instinct Theory “The Evolutionary Perspective”

Answer 9

People are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are genetically programmed to do so with survival instincts

-Motivation to SURVIVE

(+) Helps explain behavioral similarities related to adaptations from our ancestral past
(-) Does not consider human cognitive abilities

Explains animal behavior better than human behavior

Question 10

Incentive Theory

Answer 10

We are pulled into action by positive or negative outside incentives

-Actions are directed towards the promise of a reward or punishment

-Can be used to get people to engage in certain behaviors or to stop performing certain actions

(+) Based on well-established learning principles

Easily identifies external pulls on behavior

(-) Does not take internal stimuli into account, cannot explain behaviors that have no apparent external worth

Question 11

Optimum Arousal Theory “Just the Right Amount of Excitement”

Answer 11

Human motivation aims to increase arousal

-Arousal is the level of alertness, wakefulness, and activation caused by activity in the central nervous system

-We feel driven to experience stimulation

Question 12

Optimum Level of Arousal

Answer 12

Motivation is the search for just the right amount of excitement

-Being under-aroused/alert yields low performance. Or, being over-hyped yields low performance. The trick is to be just right

-People different in amount of stimulation they need or want

(+) Explains that motivated behaviors may decrease or increase arousal

(-) Does not explain our motivation to address more complex and social needs

Question 13

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 13

Abraham Maslow suggested that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs

-As a person satisfies the needs in the bottom of the pyramid

(+) Focused on development of healthy individuals

Powerful motivators of human behavior

(-) Needs do not necessarily follow a hierarchy, no evidence that needs are in hierarchical order

Question 14

Physiological Needs

Answer 14

The most basic of Maslow’s needs, the things that are vital to our survival

-Food
-Water
-Breathing
-Homeostasis

Question 15

Security/Safety Needs

Answer 15

People want control and order in their lives, so this need for safety and security contributes largely to behaviors at this level

-Financial Security

-Health and wellness

-Safety against acccidents and injury

Question 16

Social Needs

Answer 16

At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behavior

-Friendships
-Romantic attachments
-Family
-Social groups

Question 17

Esteem Needs

Answer 17

At this point, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of others. People have a need to accomplish things and then have their efforts recognized.

-Feelings of Accomplishment
-Prestige

Question 18

Self-Actualization

Answer 18

At the highest level of the hierarchy, need that essentially equates to achieving one’s full potential

-Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their purpose

Question 19

Self-Transcendence

Answer 19

People strive for meaning, purpose, and communion that is beyond the self (spiritual fulfillment)

Question 20

Hunger Motivation

Answer 20

Understanding why we eat, hunger is something that makes us do things (motivator) and is a drive state

-Hunger is a drive that pushes a person to behave in a way that fills a need (People don’t eat only because they need food)

Question 21

Set Point

Answer 21

The hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain body weight

-Describes how the hypothalamus might decide what impulse to send

-The hypothalamus tells us we should eat and lowers our metabolic rate, tells us to stop eating when that set point is reached and raises our metabolic rate to burn any excess food

Question 22

External Cues for Eating Behaviors

Answer 22

Environmental factors that influence our desire to eat

-Includes the time of the day, estimated time until the next feeding, the sight, smell, taste, and even touch of food and food-related stimuli

-Cultural/Religious Values

Question 23

Bulimia Nervosa

Answer 23

Repeated episodes of binge eating and the use of compensatory in order to offset eating

Question 24

Anorexia Nervosa

Answer 24

Characterized by not eating enough

-The physical symptoms are a result of the body being denied essential nutrients, as the body is forced to conserve its resources in an effort to survive

Question 25

Obesity

Answer 25

Obesity and the potential for health problems associated with diabetes and hypertension and growing concerns in our population -Increased risk of heart attacks, hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes

Question 26

Sexual Motivation

Answer 26

The normal human interest in sexual objects and activities -Sex is not a need, but rather a desire -If we were not motivated to have sex, then we probably would not procreate (have babies) and the human species would end

Question 27

Sex Response Cycle

Answer 27

Includes the stages humans go through during sexual interaction 1. Excitement Stage 2. Plateau Stage 3. Orgasm Phase 4. Resolution Phase 5. Refractory Period

Question 28

Achievement Motivation

Answer 28

The need for achievement drives accomplishment and performance and thereby motivates our behavior -Individual's need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback, and experience a sense of accomplishment

Question 29

Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 29

Behavior that is driven by internal rewards (autonomy, mastery, purpose) -We simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potentials -Individuals who are intrinsically motivated are likely to perform better and improve their skills at a given task

Question 30

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 30

Behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise -People who extrinsically motivated will continue to perform an action even though the task might not be in and of itself rewarding -People who are extrinsically motivated tend to be less satisfied and become unhappy more easily

Question 31

Overjustification Effect

Answer 31

Phenomenon in which being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action -People tend to pay more attention to these external rewards rather than their own enjoyment of the activity

Question 32

Affiliation Need

Answer 32

People need each other and need groups in order to survive and thrive "Social Animals" -It is instead centered on gaining acceptance, attention, and support from members of the group as well as providing the same attention to other members

Question 33

Ostracism "Social Exclusion"

Answer 33

Ostracism is being deliberately left out of a group or social setting by exclusion and rejection -Our brains react with anger or sadness when we're being threatened with exclusion

Question 34

Approach-Approach Conflict

Answer 34

Conflict within a person where they need to decide between two appealing goals

Question 35

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Answer 35

Making a decision between two equally undesirable choices

Question 36

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Answer 36

Conflict involves making decisions about situations that have both positive and negative consequences

Question 37

Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

Answer 37

Weigh the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements

Question 38

Basal Metabolic Rate

Answer 38

The rate of energy expenditure when the body is at rest

Question 39

Refractory period

Answer 39

After the orgasm, the body returns to its normal resting state during the fourth stage. Body resets itself so that it can go through the sexual response cycle once again.

Question 40

Emotion

Answer 40

A mind and body's integrated response to a stimulus of some kind. This complex experience includes: 1.Physiological Arousal 2. Expressive Behaviors 3. Conscious Experience

Question 41

Nonverbal Communication

Answer 41

Facial expressions, gestures, posture, distance, and nonlinguistic vocal characteristics that express emotional feelings - Our brains are rather amazing detectors of subtle expressions

Question 42

Display Rule

Answer 42

A social group or culture's informal norms about how to appropriately express emotions -The norms of a group not only identify when and where it is appropriate to express emotions but also the extent at which these emotions are expressed

Question 43

Common-Sense Theory

Answer 43

Theory in which a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal through the autonomic nervous system -Environmental influence (some event) ----> Psychological experience -------> Physiological state changes (emotion)

Question 44

James-Lange Theory

Answer 44

Emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events 1. External Stimulus 2. Physiological reaction 3. Emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret these emotions

Question 45

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Answer 45

Facial expressions are connected to experiencing emotions - The act of smiling can itself actually make you feel happier - James-Lange theory is consistent with the current facial-feedback hypothesis

Question 46

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions

Answer 46

Suggests that the physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the other

Question 47

Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

Answer 47

The physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion 1. Stimulus 2. Physiological Response 3. Cognitively interpreted and labeled which results in an emotion

Question 48

Catharsis

Answer 48

Intense emotional release

Question 49

Health Pyschology

Answer 49

Health psychology focuses on how biological, social and psychological factors influence health and illness.

Question 50

Well-being

Answer 50

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life

Question 51

Relative deprivation

Answer 51

the belief that a person will feel deprived or entitled to something based on the comparison to someone else

Question 52

Feel-good, do-good phenomenon

Answer 52

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. subjective well-being. self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

Question 53

Personality Psychology

Answer 53

The scientific study of the whole person -Personality can be defined as an individual's unique, relatively consistent pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Question 54

Psychoanalytic Theories

Answer 54

Sigmund Freud developed theory of personality development, human behavior and experience are determined by forces over which we have very little control and about which we are generally unaware -Great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality

Question 55

Unconscious

Answer 55

According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories -All our animalistic biological drives

Question 56

Id

Answer 56

Part of human personality that is made up of all our inborn biological urges that seeks out immediate gratification -Exists at birth and contains all the instincts and energy necessary for survival (libido)

Question 57

Ego

Answer 57

The largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality - The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain -Contains our partly conscious thoughts

Question 58

Superego

Answer 58

The part of personality that, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations -Focuses on how we ought to behave, the morality principle, need to comply with parental or other authority - Around age 4 or 5

Question 59

Psychosexual Stages

Answer 59

The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones - Freud believed personality formed the first few years of life - Sexuality = Desire for sensuous pleasure of any kind

Question 60

Oedipus Complex

Answer 60

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father - During the phallic stage - Children eventually cope with the threatening feelings, said Freud, by repressing them in the unconscious and by identifying with (trying to become like) the rival parent

Question 61

Identification

Answer 61

The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos - Freud believed that identification with the same-sex parent provides what psychologists now call out gender identity-- our sense of being male or female

Question 62

Fixation

Answer 62

According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved - Being stuck in a stage carries the sexual energy from that stage into adulthood - Fixation can also result if a trauma occurred during that stage

Question 63

Psychoanalysis

Answer 63

Freud's techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Question 64

Free Association

Answer 64

In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing - "Freudian slip," that's when we say the wrong thing out loud, but to Freud, it's the truth surfacing

Question 65

Interpretation of Dreams (1900)

Answer 65

Freud analyze dreams, viewed dreams as significant hidden material - The manifest content was what was remembered - it was the censored version. He was interested in the latent content,, that which was not remembered/ unconscious - Dream interpretation was "the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious in mental life"

Question 66

Defense mechanism

Answer 66

Freud proposed that the ego protects itself with defense mechanisms, tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality - Defense mechanisms are thought to safegaurd the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with

Question 67

Repression

Answer 67

Acts to keep information out on conscious awareness - Freud also thought these repressed feelings, memories, or desires come out in dreams symbolically

Question 68

Displacement

Answer 68

Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening - Displaced aggression is a common example of this coping mechanism

Question 69

Projection

Answer 69

Involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people - Allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego can't recognize

Question 70

Regression

Answer 70

When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development - People act out behaviors from the stage of psychosexual development which they are fixated

Question 71

Denial

Answer 71

Functions to protect the ego from things with which the individual cannot cope - Outright refusal to admit or recognize that something had occurred or is currently occurring

Question 72

Rationalization

Answer 72

Involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior - Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may also protect self-esteem and self-concept

Question 73

Reaction Formation

Answer 73

Reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse, or behavior - Defense mechanism to hide their true feelings by behaving in the exact opposite manner

Question 74

Critics Point Out...

Answer 74

(+) Today's psychologists give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, importance of sexuality & conflict between biological impulses & social restraints (-) Research doesn't support many of Freud's specific ideas

Question 75

Stress

Answer 75

A mental and physical condition that occurs when a person encounters some demand or expectation and must adjust or adapt to the environment

Question 76

Stressor

Answer 76

A condition or event in the environment that challenges or threatens a person.

Question 77

Acute stress

Answer 77

Anxiety that develops shortly after people witness or experience a traumatic event.

Question 78

Chronic stress

Answer 78

Long-term exposure to stressors that persist over an extended period.

Question 79

General adaptation syndrome

Answer 79

A three-stage process that people go through in response to stressors: -Alarm, resistance, exhaustion

Question 80

Type A

Answer 80

Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and easily angered

Question 81

Type B

Answer 81

Easygoing, relaxed, chill

Question 82

Psychophysiological illness

Answer 82

Any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

Question 83

Need for achievement (n Ach)

Answer 83

a strong desire to accomplish goals and attain a high standard of performance and personal fulfillment

Question 84

Flow

Answer 84

a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills.

Question 85

Collective unconscious

Answer 85

Stores the shared sense of universal experiences common to all human beings

Question 86

Sublimation

Answer 86

Occurs when a person redirects an unacceptable urge to something with social value. - Painting of a battle

Question 87

Archetypes

Answer 87

Universal concepts that influence our behavior and personality

Question 88

Basic anxiety

Answer 88

pervasive feeling of helplessness and loneliness.

Question 89

Persona (Mask) "Conformity Archetype"

Answer 89

The socially acceptable mask or front that a person presents to the world, highly conscious creation - Individual's persona is built on conscious patterns concerning how a good "actor" presents an appropriate mask and plays an appropriate role for the world - Hides or disguises the rue potential of the self

Question 90

Anima

Answer 90

The hidden feminine side of man, based on men's collective experiences with women throughout time

Question 91

Animus

Answer 91

The hidden masculine side of woman

Question 92

Shadow

Answer 92

Animal side of our personality, parts of the unconscious mind, repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings

Question 93

Projective Test

Answer 93

Personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli and test-takers tell a story about it - More reliable at uncovering unconscious personality traits or features. However, they are criticized for having poor reliability and validity, lacking scientific evidence

Question 94

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Answer 94

Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes - Consists of 30 cards (including one blank card) depicting ambiguous drawings - Clinician may presume any hopes, desires, and fears are projections of their own inner feelings or conflicts

Question 95

Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach)

Answer 95

The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, during the test, participants are shown the inkblots and asked what each one looks like - This test can be used to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning, and is thought to measure unconscious attitudes and motivations.

Question 96

Humanistic Theories

Answer 96

Emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality - Positive qualities & potential inherent in all of us

Question 97

Carl Rogers Self Theory

Answer 97

Self, an organized, consistent set of beliefs and perceptions about ourselves, which develops in response to our life experiences - Experiences inconsistent with our self-concept cause us to feel threatened & anxious - If we are well adjusted, we can adapt by modifying our self-concept

Question 98

Ideal Self vs Real Self

Answer 98

The ideal Self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are - Incongruence, the difference between our real self, and ideal self - The more the Incongruence the more severe the impact on the individuals' self concept

Question 99

Unconditional Positive Regard

Answer 99

Showing complete support and acceptance of a person no matter what the person says or does - If a person were provided with genuine unconditional positive regard they would become a full functioning person (strives to become genuine self)

Question 100

Self-Actualization

Answer 100

All people strive to become self-actualizing, fulfilling their natural desire to achieve their full potential

Question 101

Behavioral Theories

Answer 101

Behavioral Theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment - If we change someone's environment, we change his or her personality

Question 102

Operant Conditioning Theory

Answer 102

Personality is the sum of behaviors learned as responses to rewards or through negative reinforcement - B.F. Skinner applied the principles of operant conditioning to personality

Question 103

Environmental Determinism

Answer 103

Proposes that all behavior is caused by outside environmental forces (free will is an illusion)

Question 104

Social Cognitive Approach/Theory

Answer 104

Suggests that cognitive processes play a role equal to the environment's role to determine the individual's behavior patterns and personality - Focus on how we and our environment interact (instead of our environment controlling us)

Question 105

Reciprocal Determinism

Answer 105

Albert Bandura proposed that the person, environment, and behavior interact to determine patterns of behavior and thus personality - Personalities shape how we interpret and react to events - Personalities help create situation to which how react - Different people choose different environments

Question 106

Observational Learning

Answer 106

Albert Bandura Behavior results, people see other people's actions and the consequences of those actions and then incorporate those behaviors into their own behavior

Question 107

Self Efficacy

Answer 107

The belief that you can do a particular task greatly increases the chances that you actually can do it - Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel

Question 108

Social-Cognitive Theory, Julian Rotter

Answer 108

People make choices that shed light on their personality, people engage in activities to achieve an outcome that will satisfy their psychological needs

Question 109

Trait/Type Theories

Answer 109

The trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals, focused on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics - Trait, relatively permanent characteristic of our personality

Question 110

Gordon Allport

Answer 110

Conducted research that focused on conscious motivation and personal traits. Proposed three levels of traits... - Cardinal Traits, traits that dominate an individual's whole life - Central Traits, general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality - Secondary Traits, often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances

Question 111

Raymond Cattell's 16 Traits

Answer 111

16 Traits are the source of all human personality - Factor analysis, he identified closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits - Developed one of the most widely used personality assessments known as the "Sixteen Personality Factor Questionaire)

Question 112

Source Traits

Answer 112

The more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality

Question 113

Surface Traits

Answer 113

Aspects of personality that can be seen by other people in outward actions of a person

Question 114

Hans Eysenck's Personality Dimensions

Answer 114

Developed a model of personality based upon just three universal traits - Extraversion: Measures our sociability, tendency to pay attention to external environment - Neuroticism: Measures of level of instability - Psychoticism: Measures our level of tough-mindedness (how friendly, empathetic, and cooperative we are)

Question 115

The Big Personality Factors

Answer 115

Model of personality traits, many researchers believe that there are five core personality traits - Openness - Conscientiousness - Extraversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism

Question 116

Self-Report Methods

Answer 116

Most common personality assessment techniques, involve a person answering a series of questions, such as a personality questionaire, or supplying information about himself or herself - Type of test is often presented in a paper-and-pencil format or may even be administered on a computer

Question 117

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2)

Answer 117

The most widely used and researched clinical assessment tool used by mental health professionals to help diagnose mental health disorders - Composed of 567 true/false items, tests are scored by computer & charted on MMPI-2 profile

Question 118

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBT)

Answer 118

Self-report inventory designed to identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences - Based on the answers to the questions on the inventory, people are identified as having one of 16 personality types - Extraversion-Introversion - Sensing-Intuition - Thinking-Feeling - Judging-Perceiving (+) Relatively easy to use, it has become one of the most popular psychological instruments currently in use today (-) Studies have found that it;s not reliable.valid Different results occur