Terms Flashcards
Identity
def: different “selves” that an individual may take on in social interaction
Three levels of identity + Example
1) Personal (personality): unique to individuals (ex: introvert)
2) Role identities (roles): positions in groups (ex: mother, student)
3) Social identities (groups): groups that we are members of that shape our identities (ex: Mexican, Democrat)
Causes and consequences of group identification + examples
Causes: Social Identity Theory (SIT) –> tendency to categorize when they see contrast, no group until an out-group is salient
—> ex: poor realizing how poor they are when they see a rich neighborhood
Consequences: out-group animosity, in-group favoritism
—> ex: Dems vs. Reps
Accentuation Effect (Tajfel 1959)
- To understand the effect of categorization on perceptions of group members
- People perceived greater similarity of physical objects within sets and less similarity between sets
“Minimal group” experiment (basic findings)
- show groups can form from
even small differences - People were willing to forgo profits to maximize advantage over the out-group
3 ways to activate overarching identities + examples
1) By seeing some significant similarity
2) By working towards some common goal
3) By having a common enemy
ex: Robber’s cave experiment 1) sharing money to watch same movie 2) fixing water supply 3) vandals that broke water
“Robber’s Cave” experiment (basic findings)
- Pursuing a common goal creates group identification
- Separation and competition can generate inter-group conflict
- Cooperative pursuit of common goals (and shared success) can foster solidarity, cohesion, and liking
Kitty Genovese
Kitty was raped and killed outside her home and 38 witnesses saw or heard the attack, and none of them called the police or came to her aid.
Good Samaritan Experiment
- its not about person but whether they are willing to help in moment
- give speech across campus, meet with a man in need
- rules and learning of goodness did not impact response to helping
Bystander effect + example
the presence of others inhibits helping
ex) Kitty Genovese which death was witnessed by 30+ but no one said/did anything
Identifiable victim effect
name and identifiable victim had higher donations
Altruism vs. egoism
Altruistic: Motivated by the desire to increase another’s welfare.
Egoistic: Motivated by the desire to increase one’s own welfare.
Principle of reproducibility
idea that it should be possible to conduct a scientific study again
Direct and conceptual replications
Direct replication: effort to redo study as closely as possible, exact same tools, people etc.
Conceptual replication: test idea under different conditions, but using same ideas
Questionable research practices (5)
1) Multiple dependent variables
2) Arbitrary data exclusions
3) Optional stopping
4) Arbitrarily tweaking and re-running models
5) Small samples
Pre-registration
publicly posting a research plan before conducting a study, protects integrity of significance testing
Open Science
publicly posting data and materials
Negotiation
decision-making process in which two or more people attempt to agree on how to allocate shared resources
Distributive negotiation
ex) old car
- typically involves a single issue (e.g., price)
- Fixed-sum structure: one party’s gain is another’s loss
-Conflicting interests: each party trying to maximize share
Integrative negotiation + example
ex) job interview
- Involves multiple issues, differences in priorities and interests
- Successful outcomes involve value creation (expanding the pie), not just value claiming (slicing the pie)
Zone of Potential Agreement
- the space between two party’s reservation points (bottom line)
Naïve realism + example
belief that our subjective experience is objective
example: thinking that item is not worth it to sell, but another person actually sees value in it
Defining success in negotiation (5)
1) getting more than reservation price.
2) getting at least half of the bargaining zone
3) strengthening a relationship.
4) beating the other person
5) not being humiliated
Norm of reciprocity
try to repay what another person has provided
- desire to repay small favors fade with time but, notable gifts can be long lived
Effect of social influence on health behaviors
provide information and create norms that influence health habits
Effect of social influence on health beliefs
affect how people think and feel about their health and health problems, when and whom they seek health care, and how they respond to recommendations
Stress mindset
- extent to which one believes stress is either beneficial or debilitating
- affects performance, cognitive functioning, health, and cortisol levels
Effects of physician empathy
patient satisfaction, reduced anxiety, increased adherence, improved clinical outcomes
Effect of social support on health
lower blood pressure, decrease in cortisol, boost immune system
Attitudinal and affective political polarization
Attitudinal: levels of disagreement on issues
Affective: levels of animosity between political groups
Key strategies for reducing affective polarization
1) Sympathetic exemplars: humanizing the other side
2) Emphasizing common identities: common patriotic identity
Symmetric and asymmetric theories of political psychology
seeing the psychology of liberal and conservatives as similar (symmetric) or different (asymmetric)
Personality predictors of political ideology
openness to experience, tolerance of ambiguity, need for cognitive closure
Moral foundations theory
- Liberals endorse fairness/equality, care/harm
- Conservatives endorse loyalty, respect, purity
Moral reframing hypothesis + example
reframing a position in terms of an audience’s moral values can lead to increased support
ex) when arguing for same-sex marriage appeal to conservative morals like gay couples are patriotic Americans
Positive Psychology
study of factors influencing positive psychology outcomes like feelings of happiness/purpose
Various things that do/do not make people happy
Do: food, exercise, intimacy, relationships, generosity, gratitude, meditation, experiences
Don’t: income, possessions
Imposter Phenomenon
Feeling that people don’t belong in a space, success can make you feel fake
Flow + example
when you become totally immersed in challenging and stimulating task, well-suited to abilities, self consciousness is subdued
ex) when i play volleyball
Prosocial behavior
behaviors which help others
Immune Neglect + example
tendency of people to overestimate the intensity and duration of emotions
ex) voters overestimated how bad they would feel a month month after the gubernatorial candidate they voted for lost vs. won
Research on Pennebaker introspective essay exercise
- long term effects: psychological wellbeing and lower stress
- works because repression of thoughts is stressful, and helps create a narrative for understanding negative events
Sources/causes of meaning
relationships, generosity, behaving consistent with values, authenticity, working towards goals, adversity
Meaning/happiness disjuncture
finding meaning might not necessarily mean happiness –> ex) revolutions and parenting
Carpe Diem
seize the day
Illusion of transparency + example
tendency for people to overestimate how much others can see internal states
ex) Gilovich study involved lie-truth game in groups and people thought they were detected more than reality
Spotlight effect + example
tendency for people to overestimate extent of actions and appearances are noticed by others
ex) Gilovich study, people overestimated how others would notice artist shirt
Actions vs. Inactions
- short term people regret actions more than actions
- long term people regret the things they didn’t do, not things they did
