terms Flashcards
Skinner
Believed personality is a series of response tendencies
Social-cognitive theory (Albert Bandura):
learning and cognition both contribute to individual differences in personality
Reciprocal determinism:
Cognitive processes, behavior, and context interact and are influenced by one another
Self Efficacy
Our level of confidence in our own abilities
what is Locus of control (Julian Rotter) and the 2 types
Beliefs about the power we have over our lives
Internal locus of control: Outcomes result directly from our own efforts
External locus of control: Outcomes result from factors outside our control
Walter Mischel
Colleague of Albert Bandura, who believed personality traits are not consistent across situations
Self-regulation:
Process of identifying a goal and using internal and external feedback to maximize goal attainment
Abraham Maslow:
Developed ideas by studying creative, healthy people, not troubled clinical ones (i.e. Abraham Lincoln, Eleanor Rossevelt, Albert Einstein…)
Humanistic Perspective Characteristics
Recognize the needs and desires of others, willingness to respond to uniqueness of people, deep connections with few people, spontaneity and creativity, non-conformist
Carl Rogers
Believed people are basically good and naturally strive for self-actualization
Client/Person Centered Therapy:
Developed by Carl Rogers in which patients take the lead role in therapy. Therapists must exhibit 3 features to maximize effectiveness. (unconditional positive regard, Genuineness and empathy)
Self-concept:
Our thoughts and feelings about ourselves (Carl Rogers idea)
Minnesota Twin Studies
Identified and studied 3550 pairs of twin reared together and apart
Twin Pairs:
Personality and intelligence tests
Personality Traits
Tendencies to behave in certain ways that remain relatively constant across situations
Gordon Allport
Divided traits into three categories:
what are allports 3 categories of traits
Cardinal Traits: Dominate your personality and life (e.g. Ebenezer Scrooge’s greed)
Central Traits: Make up our personalities (e.g. kind, goofy, loyal)
Secondary Traits: Present under specific circumstances only, not as consistent (e.g. someone who gets nervous when forced to make small talk
Raymond Cattell
Proposed that there are 171 traits and all personalities are made up of the same 16 dimensions
Hans Eysenck
Used factor analysis to determine which specific traits seemed to cluster together, he called these clusters a “superfactor”
what are the three superfactors ?
Extroversion / introversion: Impulsive, sociable, assertive on the one extreme and shy, socially withdrawn, passive on the other
Neuroticism / stability: Extent to which person experiences negative emotions-temperamental, defensive, anxious on the other hand or calm, even-tempered on the other
Psychoticism / superego control: Nonconformist, impulsive, antisocial on one end, or altruistic, empathetic, cooperative on the othe
what are the five factors in the five factor model?
Agreeableness / disagreeableness
Extraversion / introversion
Neuroticism / stability
Conscientiousness / irresponsibility
Openness to experience / imaginativeness
HEXACO Model:
Big 5 with honesty-humility added
Culture
Beliefs, costumes, art, and traditions of a particular society
Individualist
Independence, competition, personal achievement
Collectivist
Social harmony, respectfulness, group needs
what are the three ways to study personality in a cultural context:
Cultural-comparative approach: Test Western ideas in other cultures
Indigenous approach: Create new culturally-relevant instruments
Combined approach
Self-Report Inventories
Paper-and-pencil questionnaires designed to assess various aspects of personality
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 (MMPI-2)
A 567 question questionnaire that is useful in distinguishing clinical populations
Projective Tests
Tests involving interpretations of an ambiguous stimulus in order to access unconscious mind
Rorschach (inkblot) test:
ambiguous shape intended to force participants to project structure and meaning onto the image
Thematic Apperception Test
Asked to make up a story about an ambiguous scene (picture)
Asked to make up a story about an ambiguous scene (picture)
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB):
Finishing incomplete sentences as quickly as possible
TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test
Designed to be culturally relevant to minorities
Social Psychology:
How people affect one another
Situationism (State Theory)
Our actions and behavior are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings
Dispositionism (Trait Theory):
Our auctions and behavior are determined by internal factors
Internal Factor
Attribute of a person such as personality traits and temperament
Fundamental Attribution Error:
when explaining a person’s behavior, we tend to Overemphasize internal factors and underemphasize external factors
FAE = Dispositional > Situational
Individualistic Culture:
Individual achievement and autonomy, focus on the individual and western countries. High likelihood of FAE
Collectivistic Culture:
Communal relationships with others, focus on the group (the collective) and eastern countries. Low likelihood of FAE
Actor-observer Bias
The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes, while attributing our own behavior to external causes
Attribution Theory:
How ordinary people explain the causes of behavior and events. Focuses on 3 factors :
Locus Of Control (internal vs external)
Stability (stable vs unstable)
Controllability (controllable vs uncontrollable)
Self-serving Bias
describes when we attribute positive events and successes to our own character or actions
Just-World Hypothesis:
The belief that people get the outcomes they deserve
Social Roles
: A pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group, defined by culturally shared knowledge
Social Norms
A group’s expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members, how group members are supposed to think and behave
Scripts
A person’s knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting
Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment:
Study about the “psychological effects of prison life”
Attitudes: Our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. Focuses on 3 main components.
Affect: How we feel
Behavior: How we behave
Cognition: How we think
Cognitive Dissonance
Psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions
Justification of Effort
We value goals and achievements the we put a lot of effort into
Persuasion
The process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication
Yale Attitude Change Approach
Describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes
Source: who
Content: what
Characteristics: to whom
Elaboration Likelihood Model
thinking processes that might occur when we attempt to change a person’s attitude through communication
Central Route-Direct
logic-driven, uses data and facts, lasting attitude change
Peripheral Route-Indirect
Uses peripheral cues, relies on positive associations, less permanent attitude change
Principle Of Consistency
Complying with an original, smaller request makes you more likely to comply with later, larger request
The Asch Effect
The influence of the group majority on an individual’s judgment
Conformity
Going along with a request or demand, even if you do not agree with the request
Normative Social Influence
Conform to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group
Informational Social Influence:
Conform because they think the group is competent in the task and has the correct information
The Milgram Experiment
The shock experiment which asked students to shock each other when answering questions incorrect
Deindividuation
When a person feels a sense of anonymity which creates a reduction in accountability and sense of self when among others
Social Loafing
A reduction of individual effort to achieve a goal when working in a group
Social Facilitation
When an individual performs better in front of an audience compared to in private
Prejudice
A negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s membership in a particular social group
Stereotypes
A specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group
Confirmation Bias
Seeking out information that supports our stereotypes and ignore information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes
Hostile Aggression
Motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain
Instrumental Aggression
Motivated by achieving a goal
Diffusion Of Responsibility
The tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group
Prosocial Behaviour
Voluntary behavior with the intent to help others
Altruism
People’s desire to help others even if the cost outweigh the benefits of helping
Proximity
We are most likely to be friends with people we have regular contact with
Similarity
We are more likely to be friends with people who are similar to us
Homophily
Tendency for people to form relationships with others who are similar
Reciprocity
The give and take in relationships
Self-Disclosure
The sharing of personal information about ourselves
Attraction
Physical traits and social traits
Matching Hypothesis
People tend to pick someone they view as their equal in physical attractiveness and social desirability
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
Believes that there are 3 components of love
Intimacy: Sharing details and intimate thoughts and emotions
Passion: Physical attraction
Commitment: Standing by the person “In sickness and in health”
Social Exchange Theory
We are motivated to maximize the benefits of social exchanges, or relationships, and minimize the costs
Stress
A process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events they appraise as overwhelming or threatening to well-being
Stressor
Event/Situation that triggers a stress response
Primary Appraisal
Judgment of potential threat or challenge associated with a stressor
Secondary Appraisal
Judgment of our ability to cope with the event
Eustress
Stress from positive stressors
Distress
Stress resulting from unpleasant stressors
Health Psychology
Scientific study of how stress and other psychological factors impact health, illness, and response to illness
The fight-or-flight Response
A response to stress
Hans Selye
A austrian born endocrinologist who noticed that the same stress response occurred regardless of the specific stressor
Acute Stressor
Brief focal events
Chronic Stressor
Events that persist over an extended period of time
Traumatic Events
Unexpected, severe events that expose an individual to threat of or actual death/injury
Life Changes
Events or situations that require us to make changes in our lives
Daily Hassles
Everyday annoyances/common experiences that may frequently produce stress
Occupation-related stressors
Situations where one is frequently exposed to challenging and unpleasant events
Job Stain
Excessive job demands/workload combined with low decision-making power
Job Burnout
Sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism related to one’s job
Immune System:
The body’s system of organs and cells that defend the body from foreign invaders (viruses, bacteria) and abnormal cell growth (cancer cells)
Immunosuppression
Decreased effectiveness of immune system (e.g. AIDS)
Psychoneuroimmunology
Growing field that studies links between stress, the immune system, and health
Cardiovascular Disorders
Disorders involving the cardiovascular system
Heart Disease
Involves blocking of coronary arteries leading to myocardial infarction
Friedman and Rosenman:
Studied 3000 healthy male volunteers and classified 2 categories:
Type A: Always tense, stressed, little patience, time pressured, aggressive, easily provoked, uptight
Type B: Patient, no sense of urgency, passive, laid back
Asthma
Chronic disease in which respiratory airways are obstructed by inflammation, leading to trouble breathing
Coping
Mental and behavioral efforts we use to manage, reduce, or tolerate stress
Adaptive: Example: join study group, reduce hours working
Maladaptive: Example: Oh well, hit george street
Problem-focused coping
Focused on dealing directly with the stressor
Emotion-focused Coping
Focused on managing one’s feelings about the stressor
Perceived Control
Beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over the shape outcomes
Seligman
Dogs previously forced to experience shocks do not even try to escape them when given the chance
Learned Helplessness
A belief that one is powerless to change their situation
Three Kinds Of Attributions
Internal vs external, Stable vs unstable, Global vs specific
Social Support
The soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances
Biofeedback
Using electronic equipment to measure involuntary activity and provide feedback
Psychological Disorder
Condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Psychopathology
The study of psychological disorders
Thomas Szasa
Mental illness is a construct invented to stigmatize people who behave in socially unacceptable ways
Disturbance
In inner states and behaviors
Dysfunction
Must stem form internal dysfunction of mechanisms in the body
Distress
Behaviors (thoughts or emotions) cause significant distress or unhappiness that interfere with daily functioning
Deviance
Behaviors (thoughts or emotions) differ from societal expectations (standards or norms)
International Classification Of Diseases (ICD-10)
System used by most countries to classify psychological disorders
Compassionate View Of Psychological Disorders
A view that has 2 key points
Psychological disorders represent extremes of thoughts, feelings, and behavior
Individuals with psychological disorders are more than their illness
Supernatural Perspective
Historically, Mental illness attributed to magic or spirits
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Typically diagnosed in early childhood
Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
Characterizes by constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity that interferes with normal functioning
Autism Spectrum Disorder:
Characterized by significant disturbances in three areas:
Social Interaction
Communication
Repetitive patterns of behavior/interests
Schizophrenia
A serious psychological disorder characterized by disorganized thinking and speech, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
Positive Symptoms
Excess of behaviors
Negative Symptoms
Deficits in behaviors
Mood Disorders
Characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions
Major Depressive Disorder
A disorder characterized by depressed mood and loss of interest/pleasure in usual activities
Bipolar Disorder
Periods of mania (dramatic and inappropriate elevation in mood) that alternate with periods of depression
Diathesis-Stress Model
Stressful life events contribute to MDD
Anxiety Disorders
Disabling levels of fear or anxiety that are frequent, severe, persistent, or easily triggered
Phobias
An extreme fear of something
Classical Conditioning
When neutral stimulus is paired with negative stimulus
Social Anxiety Disorder
Severe, persistent fear of embarrassment in social situations
Panic Attacks
Periodic sudden bouts of panic or terror in the absence of any real threat
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Excessive worry accompanied by at least three of the following:
Restlessness, irritability, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, muscle tension, and sleep problems
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
characterized by obsessions and compulsions
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Obsession with a perceived flaw in physical appearance
Hoarding Disorder
Inability to part with possessions, leading to excessive clutter and accumulation of stuff
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
A set of fear/arousal symptoms tied to a specific traumatic event
Intrusion
Avoidance
Alterations in cognitions/moods
Alterations in arousal/reactivity
Dissociative Amnesia
Unable to remember important information, brought on by traumatic event
Depersonalization
Feeling of detachment from one’s body
Derealization
Detachment from the world
Dissociative Disorders (DID)
Two or more distinct personalities
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
Great instability, major shifts in mood, unstable self-image, and impulsivity
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Persistent and callous disregard for the feelings and rights of others
