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ASC171 > Terminology > Flashcards

Terminology Flashcards

0
Q

Define Physiology

A

the study of normal function, control and integration of various body systems

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1
Q

Define Anatomy.

A

the study of the normal body organs and structures

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2
Q

Define A band

A

One of the dark bands that alternate with light (I) bands to create a striated appearance in skeletal or cardiac muscle fibers when these fibers are viewed with a light microscope

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3
Q

Define abomasum

A

The fourth compartment of the ruminant stomach, which has functions similar to the glandular stomach of non-ruminants

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4
Q

Define absorptive state

A

The metabolic state following a meal when nutrients are being absorbed and stored; fed state

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5
Q

Define accessory digestive organs

A

Exocrine organs outside the wall of the digestive tract that empty their secretions through ducts into the digestive tract lumen

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6
Q

Define accessory sex glands

A

Glands that empty their secretions into the reproductive tract

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7
Q

Define acclimation

A

A laboratory phenomenon in which the chronic response of an animal to a change in environment is measured; normally the old and new environments differ in one or two highly specific ways

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8
Q

Define acclimatization

A

The (usually slow) process of changing physiological processes to function more optimally under new conditions

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9
Q

Define accommodation in relation to the eye

A

In the eye, the ability to adjust the strength of the lens so that both near and far sources can be focused on the retina

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10
Q

Define acetylcholine (ACh)

A

The neurotransmitter released from all autonomic

preganglionic fibers, parasympathetic postganglionic fibers, and motor neurons

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11
Q

Define acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

A

An enzyme present in the motor end-plate membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber that inactivates acetylcholine

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12
Q

Define achalasia

A

A condition that occurs commonly in dogs (and in humans) in which the lower esophageal sphincter fails to relax during swallowing but instead contracts more vigorously

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13
Q

Define acid

A

A hydrogen-containing substance that on dissociation yields a free hydrogen ion

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14
Q

Define acidosis

A

Blood pH below the normal range (<7.35 in most mammals)

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15
Q

Define acini

A

The secretory component of saclike exocrine glands, such as enzyme-producing pancreatic glands or milk-producing mammary glands

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16
Q

Define acquired immune responses

A

Responses (also called adaptive) that are selectively targeted against particular foreign material to which the body has previously been exposed; see also antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity

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17
Q

Define acrorhagia

A

Special stinging “battle” tentacles in some Anthozoan Cnidarians (anemones, corals)

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18
Q

Define actin

A

The contractile protein that forms the backbone of the thin filaments in muscle fibers; also contributes to the motility of other kinds of cells

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19
Q

Define active expiration

A

Emptying of the lungs more completely than when at rest by contracting the expiratory muscles; also called forced expiration

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20
Q

Define active reabsorption

A

The condition when any step in the transepithelial transport of a substance requires energy expenditure

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21
Q

Define active transport

A

Active carrier-mediated transport involving transport of a substance against its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane

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22
Q

Define acuity

A

Discriminative ability; the ability to discern two different points of stimulation

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23
Q

Define adaptation

A

(1) A reduction in receptor potential despite sustained stimulation of the same magnitude; (2) any feature of an organism that enhances evolutionary fitness

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24
Q

Define adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

A

The two phosphate products formed from the splitting of ATP to yield energy for the cell’s use

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25
Q

Define adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

The common energy “currency” of all life, which consists of an adenosine with three phosphate groups attached; splitting of the high-energy, terminal phosphate bond provides energy to power cell activities

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26
Q

Define adenylyl cyclase

A

The membrane-bound enzyme that is activated by a G-protein intermediary in response to binding of
an extracellular messenger with a surface membrane receptor and that, in turn, activates cyclic AMP, an intracellular second messenger

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27
Q

Define adequate stimulus

A

The main type of stimulus to which a particular receptor (sensory cell) is specialized to respond

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28
Q

Define adiponectin

A

A hormone produced by adipose tissue in non-obese mammals; may serve in regulating energy balance

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29
Q

Define adipose tissue

A

The tissue specialized for storage of triglyceride fat; found under the skin in the hypodermis

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30
Q

Define adrenal cortex

A

The outer portion of the vertebrate adrenal gland; secretes three classes of steroid hormones: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and sex hormones

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31
Q

Define adrenal medulla

A

The inner portion of the vertebrate adrenal gland; an endocrine gland that is a modified sympathetic ganglion that secretes the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood in response to sympathetic stimulation

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32
Q

Define adrenergic fibers

A

Nerve fibers that release norepinephrine as their

neurotransmitter

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33
Q

Define adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates cortisol secretion by the adrenal cortex and promotes growth of the adrenal cortex

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34
Q

Define aerobes

A

Organisms that rely on oxygen-based metabolism

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35
Q

Define aerobic

A

Referring to a condition in which oxygen is available; aerobic metabolism is the process in which ATP formation is accomplished through oxidative phosphorylation

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36
Q

Define afferent arteriole

A

The vessel that carries blood into the glomerulus of the mammalian kidney’s nephron

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37
Q

Define afferent division

A

The portion of the peripheral nervous system that carries information from the periphery to the central nervous system; made of afferent neurons, which have sensory receptors at their peripheral endings

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38
Q

Define after hyperpolarization

A

A slight, transient hyperpolarization that sometimes occurs at the end of an action potential

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39
Q

Define agonist

A

A nonnative signal molecule (e.g., a drug or toxin) that mimics the effects of a native signal molecule (for opposing term, see antagonist)

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40
Q

Define agranulocytes

A

Leukocytes that do not contain granules, including lymphocytes and monocytes

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41
Q

Define air capillary

A

Small airways that branch off from the principal respiratory tubules, the parabronchi, within the avian lung; these are the site of gas exchange between the air and blood

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42
Q

Define air sac

A

A thin-walled, air-filled component of the avian respiratory system with little musculature and few blood vessels

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43
Q

Define albumin

A

The smallest and most abundant of the plasma proteins; binds and transports many water-insoluble substances in the blood; contributes extensively to plasma-colloid osmotic pressure

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44
Q

Define aldosterone

A

The adrenocortical hormone that stimulates
Na + reabsorption by the distal and collecting tu-
bules of the kidney’s nephron during urine
formation

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45
Q

Define alkalosis

A 
Blood pH above the 
normal range (>7.45 in most mammals)
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46
Q

Define all-or-none law

A

An excitable membrane either responds to a stimulus with a maximal action potential that spreads nondecrementally throughout the membrane or does not respond with an action potential at all

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47
Q

Define allosteric

A

A noncatalytic binding site on an enzyme that binds regulatory molecules

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48
Q

Define alpha cells

A

The endocrine pancreatic islet cells that secrete the hormone glucagon

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49
Q

Define alpha motor neuron

A

A motor neuron that innervates ordinary skeletal muscle fibers

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50
Q

Define altricial

A

Referring to young that are absolutely dependent on continued parental care

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51
Q

Define alveolar surface tension

A

The surface tension of the fluid lining the alveoli in the lungs; see surface tension

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52
Q

Define alveolar ventilation

A

Volume of air exchanged between the atmosphere and alveoli per minute; equals (tidal volume − dead-space volume) × respiratory rate

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53
Q

Define alveoli in terms of lungs

A

The air sacs across which O2 and CO2 are exchanged between the blood and air in mammalian (and some other vertebrate) lungs

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54
Q

Define amines

A

Hormones derived from amino acids, especially tyrosine; include thyroid hormone and catecholamines

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55
Q

Define ammonotelic

A

Having ammonia as a primary nitrogenous waste product

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56
Q

Define amoebocyte

A

Wandering immune cell in nonvertebrates

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57
Q

Define amoeboid movement

A

“Crawling” movement of white blood cells, similar to the means by which amoebas move

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58
Q

Define ampullary electroreceptors

A

Found in almost all nonteleost fishes and in some teleosts as well as in several amphibian species; respond to low-frequency electric signals that are typical of electrical output from animal nerves and hearts

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59
Q

Define amygdala

A

Structure of mammalian forebrain (limbic system) located on the interior underside of the temporal lobe; believed to be the homologue of the reptilian and avian paleostriatum; appears to store memories of highly emotional events

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60
Q

Define anabolism

A

The buildup, or synthesis, of larger organic molecules from the small organic molecular subunits

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61
Q

Define anaerobes

A

Organisms that can survive on metabolism that does not require oxygen

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62
Q

Define anaerobic

A

Referring to a condition in which oxygen is not present; in anaerobic metabolism, ATP formation is accomplished by anaerobic glycolysis, usually only for brief periods of time when O2 delivery is inadequate to support oxidative phosphorylation

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63
Q

Define analgesic

A

Pain relieving

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64
Q

Define androgen

A

A vertebrate masculinizing “male” sex hormone; includes testosterone from the testes and dehydroepiandrosterone from the adrenal cortex

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65
Q

Define anemia

A

A reduction below normal in the O2-carrying capacity of the blood

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66
Q

Define anestrus

A

Condition where a female mammal does not cycle into reproductive readiness, because of insufficient hormonal stimuli

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67
Q

Define angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

A

An enzyme in the lung that converts inactive angiotensin I to angiotensin II

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68
Q

Define anhydrobiotic

A

Literally, life without water; referring to dormant stages of organisms with very little water content

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69
Q

Define anion

A

Negatively charged ion that has gained one or more electrons in its outer shell

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70
Q

Define anoxia

A

The complete lack of oxygen

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71
Q

Define antagonism in terms of hormones

A

A process opposing another; e.g., when one hormone causes the loss of another hormone’s receptors, reducing the effectiveness of the second hormone

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72
Q

Define antagonist in terms of signal molecules and muscles

A

A process opposing another; e.g., (1) a nonnative signal molecule (such as a drug or toxin) blocking the effects of a native signal molecule (for opposite term, see agonist); (2) a muscle that moves in opposition to another

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73
Q

Define anterior pituitary

A

The nonneural endocrine portion of the vertebrate pituitary gland, having three parts with variable representation in various species: pars tuberalis, pars intermedia, and pars distalis; stores and secretes six different hormones: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and prolactin

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74
Q

Define antibody

A

A vertebrate immunoglobulin produced by a specific activated B lymphocyte (plasma cell) against a particular antigen; binds with the specific antigen against which it is produced and promotes the antigenic invader’s destruction by augmenting nonspecific immune responses already initiated against the antigen

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75
Q

Define antibody-mediated immunity

A

A specific immune response accomplished by antibody production by B cells

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76
Q

Define antidiuresis

A

A state of low urine output

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77
Q

Define antidiuretic hormone

A

vasopressin

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78
Q

Define antigen

A

A large complex molecule that triggers a specific immune response against itself when it gains entry into a vertebrate body

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79
Q

Define antigen-presenting cell (APC)

A

A vertebrate immune cell that can ingest and digest antigens, then “present” them to helper T cells to activate the acquired immune response

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80
Q

Define antimicrobial peptides

A

Small defensive proteins produced by barrier tissues and some immune cells in many, if not all animals; many kill microbes by creating pores in their membranes

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81
Q

Define antioxidant

A

A substance that helps inactivate biologically damaging free radicals

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82
Q

Define antiporter

A

A transporter protein in a membrane that moves two (or more) molecules or ions in the opposite direction

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83
Q

Define antrum (of ovary)

A

The fluid-filled cavity formed within a developing ovarian follicle

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84
Q

Define antrum (of stomach)

A

The lower portion of the vertebrate stomach

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85
Q

Define aorta

A

The large vessel that carries blood from the vertebrate heart to the body

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86
Q

Define aortic valve

A

A one-way valve that permits the flow of blood from the mammalian left ventricle into the aorta during ventricular emptying but prevents the backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular relaxation

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87
Q

Define apnea

A

T he absence of breathing

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88
Q

Define apodemes

A

In arthropods, ridges that project from the inner face of the exoskeleton for the attachment of muscles

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89
Q

Define apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death; deliberate self-destruction of a cell (as opposed to necrosis, unintended cell death)

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90
Q

Define appetite centers

A

Neuronal clusters in the lateral regions of the vertebrate hypothalamus that drive the animal to eat

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91
Q

Define aquaporin

A

A protein that forms a channel in a membrane that allows water to diffuse through it

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92
Q

Define aqueous humor

A

The clear watery fluid in the anterior chamber of the vertebrate eye; provides nourishment for the cornea and lens

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93
Q

Define archaea

A

Ancient prokaryotes forming one of three distinct forms of life (along with bacteria and eukarya), often found in extreme habitats such as hot springs, salt brines; thought to be related to the ancestor of the main eukaryotic cell

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94
Q

Define aromatase

A

The enzyme that converts androgens (e.g., testosterone) into estrogens (estradiol)

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95
Q

Define arterioles

A

The highly muscular, high-resistance vessels of vertebrates, the caliber of which can be changed subject to control to determine how much of the cardiac output is distributed to each of the various tissues

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96
Q

Define artery

A

A vessel that carries blood away from the heart

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97
Q

Define ascending tract

A

A bundle of nerve fibers of similar function that travels up the vertebrate spinal cord to transmit signals derived from afferent input to the brain

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98
Q

Define astrocyte

A

A type of glial cell in the vertebrate brain; major functions include holding the neurons together in proper spatial relationship and inducing the brain capillaries to form tight junctions important in the blood–brain barrier

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99
Q

Define asynchronous

A

Out of step or phase control of flight muscles; a single Ca2 + release “turns on” the flight muscle; when in this state, the muscle becomes activated by stretch and deactivated by shortening

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100
Q

Define atherosclerosis

A

A progressive, degenerative arterial disease that leads to gradual blockage of vertebrate vessels, reducing blood flow through them

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101
Q

Define atmospheric pressure

A

The pressure exerted by the weight of the air in the atmosphere on objects on Earth’s surface; equals 760 mm Hg at sea level

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102
Q

Define ATPase

A

An enzyme that hydrolyses ATP into ADP and energy

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103
Q

Define ATP synthase

A

The enzyme within the mitochondrial inner membrane that phosphorylates ADP to ATP

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104
Q

Define atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

A peptide hormone released from the vertebrate cardiac atria that promotes urinary loss of Na + in mammals

105
Q

Define atrioventricular (AV) node

A

A small bundle of specialized cardiac cells located at the junction of the atria and ventricles that serves as the only site of electrical contact between the atria and ventricles in vertebrates

106
Q

Define atrioventricular (AV) valve

A

A one-way valve that permits the flow of blood from the atrium to the ventricle during filling of the mammalian heart but prevents the backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium during emptying of the heart

107
Q

Define atrium

A

A chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins or hemolymph and transfers it to a ventricle

108
Q

Define atrophy

A

Decrease in mass of an organ by loss of cells

109
Q

Define autocrine

A

A locally acting signal molecule regulating a cellular process of the cell that secreted it (“self-stimulation”)

110
Q

Define autoimmune disease

A

Disease characterized by erroneous production of antibodies against one of the body’s own tissues

111
Q

Define autonomic nervous system

A

The portion of the efferent division of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system that innervates smooth and cardiac muscle and exocrine glands; composed of two subdivisions, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system

112
Q

Define autorhythmicity

A

The ability of an excitable cell to rhythmically initiate its own action potentials

113
Q

Define avoiders

A

Organisms that reduce disturbances to a particular physiological state by behaviorally avoiding environmental changes

114
Q

Define axon

A

A single, elongated tubular extension of a neuron that conducts action potentials away from the cell body; also known as a nerve fiber

115
Q

Define axon hillock

A

T he first portion of a neuronal axon plus the region of the cell body from which the axon leaves; the site of action potential initiation in most neurons

116
Q

Define axon terminals

A

T he branched endings of a neuronal axon, which release a neurotransmitter that influences target cells in close association with the axon terminals

117
Q

Define B lymphocytes (B cells)

A

Vertebrate white blood cells that produce antibodies against specific antigens to which they have been exposed

118
Q

Define bacteria

A

Prokaryotes forming one of three distinct forms of life (along with archaea and eukarya); included are those related to the ancestors of the eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplast

119
Q

Define baculum

A

Penis bone in some mammals

120
Q

Define bag cells

A

Two clusters of cells in crustacean connective tissue above the abdominal ganglion; produce egg-laying hormone (ELH)

121
Q

Define baleen

A

Parallel fused filaments of keratin, the same protein of hair fibers that hang from the upper jaws of baleen whales in place of teeth

122
Q

Define baroreceptor reflex

A

An autonomically mediated reflex response that influences the vertebrate heart and blood vessels to oppose a change in mean arterial blood pressure

123
Q

Define baroreceptors

A

Receptors located within the vertebrate circulatory system that monitor blood pressure

124
Q

Define basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

The minimal rate of internal energy expenditure; an endotherm body’s “idling speed”

125
Q

Define basal nuclei

A

Several masses of gray matter located deep within the white matter of the cerebrum of the vertebrate brain; play an important inhibitory role in motor control

126
Q

Define basal transcription complex

A

An assembly of proteins that initiate gene transcription in eukaryotes

127
Q

Define base

A

A substance that can combine with a free hydrogen ion and remove it from solution

128
Q

Define basic electrical rhythm (BER)

A

Self-induced electrical activity of the digestive tract smooth muscle

129
Q

Define basilar membrane

A

The membrane that forms the floor of the middle compartment of the vertebrate cochlea and bears the organ of Corti, the sense organ for hearing

130
Q

Define basophils

A

White blood cells of vertebrates that synthesize, store, and release histamine, which is important in allergic responses

131
Q

Define beta cells

A

The endocrine pancreatic cells that secrete the hormone insulin

132
Q

Define bicarbonate (HCO3-)

A

The anion resulting from dissociation of carbonic acid, H 2CO3

133
Q

Define bile salts

A

Cholesterol derivatives secreted in vertebrate bile that facilitate fat digestion through their detergent action and facilitate fat absorption through their micellar formation

134
Q

Define billary system

A

The bile-producing system, consisting of the liver, gallbladder, and associated ducts in vertebrates

135
Q

Define bilirubin

A

A bile pigment antoxidant and waste product derived from biliverdin

136
Q

Define biliverdin

A

A bile pigment that is a waste product derived from the degradation of hemoglobin during the breakdown of old red blood cells

137
Q

Define bimodal

A

Having two respiratory exchange surfaces, including the gills and either cutaneous exchange or lungs

138
Q

Define blastocyst

A

T he developmental stage of the fertilized mammalian ovum by the time it is ready to implant; consists of a single-layered sphere of cells encircling a fluid-filled cavity

139
Q

Define blood-brain barrier

A

Special structural and functional features of vertebrate brain capillaries that limit access of materials from the blood into the brain tissue

140
Q

Define body system

A

A collection of organs that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common activity that is essential for survival of the whole body; for example, the digestive system

141
Q

Define bone marrow

A

T he soft, highly cellular tissue that fills the internal cavities of vertebrate bones and is the source of most blood cells in terrestrial vertebrates

142
Q

Define book lung

A

Respiratory organ in many arachnids consisting of numerous membranous folds arranged like the pages of a book with sheetlike air spaces

143
Q

Define Bowman’s capsule

A

The beginning of the tubular component of the mammalian kidney’s nephron that cups around the glomerulus and collects the glomerular filtrate as it is formed

144
Q

Define Boyle’s law

A

At any constant temperature, the pressure exerted by a gas varies inversely with the volume of the gas

145
Q

Define brain

A

T he most anterior, most highly developed portion of a central nervous system

146
Q

Define brainstem

A

T he portion of the vertebrate brain that is continuous with the spinal cord, serves as an integrating link between the spinal cord and higher brain levels, and controls many life-sustaining processes, such as breathing, circulation, and digestion

147
Q

Define bronchioles

A

The small branching airways within vertebrate lungs

148
Q

Define bronchoconstriction

A

Narrowing of the respiratory airways

149
Q

Define bronchodilation

A

Widening of the respiratory airways

150
Q

Define brush border

A

The collection of microvilli projecting from the luminal border of epithelial cells lining the digestive tract and kidney tubules

151
Q

Define buffer system

A

A mixture in a solution of two or more chemical compounds that minimize pH changes when either an acid or a base is added to or removed from the solution

152
Q

Define bulbourethral glands

A

Male accessory sex glands that secrete mucus for

lubrication (in mammals)

153
Q

Define bulk flow

A

Movement in bulk of a protein-free plasma across the capillary walls between the blood and surrounding interstitial fluid; encompasses ultrafiltration and re-absorption

154
Q

Define bulk transport

A

Active movement of the medium (gas or liquid)

155
Q

Define bundle of His

A

A tract of specialized cardiac cells that rapidly transmits an action potential down the interventricular septum of the avian and mammalian heart

156
Q

Define bursa of Fabricius

A

A gut-related lymphoid tissue unique to birds; site of B-cell maturation

157
Q

Define C cells

A

The thyroid cells that secrete calcitonin

158
Q

Define calcitonin

A

A vertebrate hormone secreted by the thyroid C cells that lowers plasma Ca2 + levels

159
Q

Define calcium homeostasis

A

Maintenance of a constant free plasma Ca2 + concentration

160
Q

Define calmodulin

A

An intracellular Ca2 +-binding protein that, on activation by Ca2 +, induces a change in structure and function of another intracellular protein; especially important in smooth muscle excitation–contraction coupling

161
Q

Define capacitance

A

The ability of an insulating material, such as the cell membrane, to store an electrical charge

162
Q

Define capacitation

A

The stage in which mammalian spermatozoa become capable of fertilization

163
Q

Define capillaries

A

The thin-walled, pore-lined, smallest blood vessels, across which exchange between the blood and surrounding tissues takes place

164
Q

Define capsaicin

A

The “hot”-tasting chemical of chili peppers

165
Q

Define carbonic anhydrase

A

The enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and OH − into HCO3 −

166
Q

Define cardiac cycle

A

One period of systole and diastole

167
Q

Define cardiac muscle

A

The specialized muscle found only in the heart

168
Q

Define cardiac output (C.O.)

A

The volume of blood pumped by each ventricle each minute; equals stroke volume × heart rate

169
Q

Define cardiovascular control center

A

The integrating center located in the medulla of the vertebrate brainstem that controls mean arterial blood pressure

170
Q

Define carnivore

A

Animal that captures and consumes live prey or that locates and consumes carrion

171
Q

Define carrier molecules

A

Membrane proteins that, by undergoing reversible changes in shape so that specific binding sites are alternately exposed at either side of the membrane, can bind with and transfer particular substances unable to cross the plasma membrane on their own

172
Q

Define carrier-mediated transport

A

Transport of a substance across the plasma membrane facilitated by a carrier molecule

173
Q

Define cascade

A

A series of sequential reactions that culminates in a final product, such as a clot

174
Q

Define catabolism

A

The breakdown, or degradation, of large energy-rich molecules within cells

175
Q

Define catalase

A

An antioxidant enzyme found in peroxisomes that decomposes potent hydrogen peroxide into harmless H2O and O2

176
Q

Define catch state

A

In some nonvertebrates such as bivalve mollusks, a state of continuous contraction of smooth muscle that maintains tension with little metabolic cost

177
Q

Define catecholamines

A

The chemical classification of the vertebrates adrenomedullary hormones

178
Q

Define cations

A

Positively charged ions that have lost one or more electrons from their outer shell

179
Q

Define caveolae

A

Cavelike indentations in the outer surface of the plasma membrane that contain an abundance of membrane receptors and serve as important sites for signal transduction

180
Q

Define cDNA

A

DNA code that is synthesized in the laboratory as a complementary copy of an RNA isolated from a tissue

181
Q

Define cell

A

The smallest unit capable of carrying out the processes associated with life; the basic unit of both structure and function of living organisms

182
Q

Define cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

A

Proteins that protrude from the surface of the plasma membrane and form loops or other appendages that the cells use to grip each other and the surrounding connective tissue fibers

183
Q

Define cell body

A

The portion of a neuron that houses the nucleus and organelles

184
Q

Define cell-mediated immunity

A

A specific immune response accomplished by activated T lymphocytes, which directly attack unwanted cells

185
Q

Define center

A

A functional collection of cell bodies within the central nervous system

186
Q

Define central chemoreceptors

A

Receptors located in the vertebrate medulla near
the respiratory center that respond to changes in
ECF H + concentration resulting from changes in
arterial PC O2 and adjust respiration accordingly

187
Q

Define central lacteal

A

The initial lymphatic vessel that supplies each of the vertebrate small intestinal villi

188
Q

Define central nervous system (CNS)

A

The brain and longitudinal nerve cord(s), which integrate input from sensory neurons and output to effectors

189
Q

Define central sulcus

A

A deep infolding of the mammalian brain surface that runs roughly down the middle of the lateral surface of each cerebral hemisphere and separates the parietal and frontal lobes

190
Q

Define centrioles

A

A pair of short, cylindrical structures within a cell that form the mitotic spindle during cell division

191
Q

Define cerebellum

A

The portion of the vertebrate brain attached to the brainstem and concerned with maintaining proper position of the body in space and subconscious coordination of motor activity

192
Q

Define cerebral cortex

A

The outer shell of gray matter in the vertebrate cerebrum; site of initiation of all voluntary motor output and final perceptual processing of all sensory input as well as integration of most higher neural activity

193
Q

Define cerebral hemispheres

A

The cerebrum’s two halves, which are connected by a thick band of neuronal axons

194
Q

Define cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A

A special cushioning fluid that is produced by, surrounds, and flows through the central nervous system of vertebrates

195
Q

Define cerebrum

A

The division of the vertebrate brain that consists of the basal nuclei and cerebral cortex

196
Q

Define channel

A

Small water-filled passageway through the plasma membrane; formed by membrane proteins that span the membrane and provide a highly selective passage for small water-soluble substances such as ions

197
Q

Define chemically gated

A

Referring to channels in the plasma membrane that open or close in response to the binding of a specific chemical messenger with a membrane receptor site that is in close association with the channel

198
Q

Define chemoreceptor

A

A sensory receptor sensitive to specific chemicals

199
Q

Define chemotaxin

A

A chemical released at an inflammatory site that attracts phagocytes to the area

200
Q

Define chemotaxis

A

Movement of an organism toward or away from a chemical substance

201
Q

Define chief cells

A

The vertebrate stomach cells that secrete pepsinogen

202
Q

Define chitin

A

A polymer of repeating N-acetylglucosamine, serving as the primary structural molecule of arthropod exoskeletons

203
Q

Define chloride cells

A

Specialized cells, which transport NaCl, in the gill epithelia of fishes

204
Q

Define cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

A hormone released from the vertebrate duodenal
mucosa primarily in response to the presence of
fat; inhibits gastric motility and secretion, stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion, and stimulates gallbladder contraction

205
Q

Define cholesterol

A

A type of lipid molecule that serves as a precursor for steroid hormones and bile salts and is a stabilizing component of the plasma membrane

206
Q

Define cholinergic fibers

A

Nerve fibers that release acetylcholine as their

neurotransmitter

207
Q

Define chorionic gonadotropin (CG)

A

A hormone secreted by the early mammalian embryo and developing placenta that stimulates and maintains the corpus luteum of pregnancy

208
Q

Define chromatophores

A

Pigment-containing cells that are found in the integument of some animals and are responsible for physiological color change; the color granules are dispersed or concentrated depending on the animal’s perception of its surroundings

209
Q

Define chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

A

A group of lung diseases characterized by increased airway resistance resulting from narrowing of the lumen of the lower airways; includes asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema

210
Q

Define chyme

A

A thick liquid mixture of food and digestive juices

211
Q

Define cilia

A

Motile hairlike protrusions from the surface of many cells, such as in ciliate protozoa, flatworm integument, and linings of mammalian respiratory airways and oviducts

212
Q

Define ciliary body

A

The portion of the vertebrate eye that produces aqueous humor and contains the ciliary muscle

213
Q

Define ciliary muscle

A

A circular ring of smooth muscle, within the vertebrate eye, whose contraction increases the strength of the lens to accommodate for near vision

214
Q

Define circadian rhythm

A

Repetitive oscillations in the set point of various body activities, such as hormone levels and body temperature, that are very regular and have an approximate frequency of 24 hours, usually linked
to light–dark cycles; diurnal rhythm; biological
rhythm

215
Q

Define circannual

A

biological rhythm that fluctuates yearly

216
Q

Define cistern

A

Structure associated with the mammalian teat; permits pooling of milk from several ducts before exiting the gland

217
Q

Define citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)

A

A cyclical series of biochemical reactions that involves the further processing of intermediate breakdown products of nutrient molecules, resulting in the generation of carbon dioxide and the preparation of hydrogen carrier molecules for entry into the high-energy–yielding electron transport chain

218
Q

Define cloaca

A

The final chamber of the hindgut of birds and reptiles

219
Q

Define clone

A

An exact genetic copy of a gene, or an organism arising from an exact copy of a genome

220
Q

Define clutch

A

The number of eggs incubated at one time

221
Q

Define cochlea

A

The snail-shaped portion of the vertebrate inner ear that houses the receptors for sound

222
Q

Define coevolution

A

The process in which adaptive changes in one organism favor selection for adaptations in a second organism, which, in turn, favor selection for a different adaptation in the first organism, and so on

223
Q

Define collecting tubule

A

The last portion of tubule in the mammalian kidney’s nephron that empties into the renal pelvis

224
Q

Define colligative properties

A

Solution properties of an idealized solute at 1 mole in 1 kg of water (defined as 1 molal), which has an osmotic pressure of 22.4 atmospheres (atm), raises boiling point by 0.54°C, depresses freezing point by 1.86°C, and also reduces vapor pressure

225
Q

Define colloid

A

The thyroglobulin-containing substance enclosed within the thyroid follicles

226
Q

Define colloid osmotic pressure

A

T he difference in osmotic pressure that exists between the ECF and ICF due to differences in their concentrations of nonpermeating proteins

227
Q

Define compatible osmolyte

A

An organic osmolyte that elevates the osmotic pressure of a body fluid without perturbing cell functions

228
Q

Define complement system

A

A collection of vertebrate plasma proteins that are activated in cascade fashion on exposure to invading microorganisms, ultimately producing a membrane attack complex that destroys the invaders

229
Q

Define compliance

A

The distensibility of a hollow, elastic structure, such as a blood vessel or the lungs; a measure of how easily the structure can be stretched

230
Q

Define compound eye

A

Multifaceted arthropod eye composed of umerous optical units called ommatidia

231
Q

Define concentration gradient

A

A difference in concentration of a particular substance between two adjacent areas

232
Q

Define conduction

A

Transfer of heat between objects of differing temperatures that are in direct contact with each other

233
Q

Define cones in terms of the eye

A

The vertebrate eye’s photoreceptors used for color vision in the light

235
Q

Define conformers

A

Organisms in which a particular physiological state matches that of the environment

236
Q

Define congestive heart failure

A

The inability of the cardiac output to keep pace with the body’s needs for blood delivery, with blood damming up in the veins behind the failing heart

237
Q

Define connective tissue

A

Tissue that serves to connect, support, and anchor various body parts; distinguished by relatively few cells dispersed within an abundance of extracellular material.

238
Q

Define contiguous conduction

A

The means by which an action potential is propagated throughout a non-myelinated nerve fiber; local current flow between an active and adjacent inactive area brings the inactive area to threshold, triggering an action potential in a previously inactive area

239
Q

Define contractile proteins

A

Myosin and actin, whose interaction brings about shortening (contraction) of a muscle fiber

240
Q

Define conus arteriosus

A

In cartilaginous fish, a chambered extension of the ventricle through which blood exits the heart

241
Q

Define convection

A

Transfer of heat energy by air or water currents

242
Q

Define convergence

A

(1) The converging of many presynaptic terminals from thousands of other neurons on a single neuronal cell body and its dendrites so that activity in the single neuron is influenced by the activity from many other neurons; (2) the independent evolution of similar structures in different species without a common ancestral structure

243
Q

Define convex

A

Curved out, as a surface in a lens that converges light rays

244
Q

Define cooperativity

A

The binding of a ligand, such as O2, to its binding site on a multisubunit protein, such as hemoglobin, subsequently affecting the ability of other binding sites on the same protein to associate with additional ligand

245
Q

Define coprodaeum

A

Anterior portion of the avian cloaca, receives the excreta from the digestive tract

246
Q

Define coprophagy

A

Reingestion of feces

247
Q

Define copulatory plug

A

Temporary mating plug that forms after fertilization, which prevents both the loss of semen from the female tract as well as entry of sperm into the vagina (genital chamber) from a competing male

248
Q

Define core temperature

A

The temperature within the inner core of a body (abdominal and thoracic organs, central nervous system, and skeletal muscles)

249
Q

Define cornea

A

The clear, most anterior,
outer layer of an eye, through which light rays
pass to the interior of the eye

250
Q

Define corpus luteum

A

The ovarian structure that develops from a ruptured follicle following ovulation in a mammal

251
Q

Define cortisol

A

The vertebrate adrenocortical hormone that plays an important role in carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism and helps the body resist stress; functionally similar to corticosterone

252
Q

Define counteracting osmolyte

A

An organic osmolyte that elevates the osmotic pressure of a body fluid and that counteracts the effects of a perturbant of cellular macromolecules

253
Q

Define countercurrent

A

A design in which fluid in two juxtaposed tubes flows in opposite directions (alternatively, in which flow in a single tube alternates between inflow and outflow)

254
Q

Define cranial nerves

A

The 12 pairs of vertebrate peripheral nerves, the majority of which arise from the brainstem

255
Q

Define crop

A

An enlarged posterior portion of the foregut, just anterior to the esophagus

256
Q

Define crop milk

A

Lipid material synthesized by epithelial cells of the crop of adult pigeons and doves; these cells are sloughed off and mixed with food already present in the crop and fed by regurgitation to juveniles

257
Q

Define cross bridges

A

T he myosin molecules’ globular heads that protrude from a thick filament within a muscle fiber and interact with the actin molecules in the thin filaments to shorten the muscle fiber during contraction

258
Q

Define crosscurrent exchange

A

Airflow and blood flow in the parabronchi of the avian lung that occur perpendicular to one another

259
Q

Define cryoprotectant

A

A molecule that is used to prevent freezing by lowering the freezing point in a
body fluid

260
Q

Define cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP)

A

An intracellular second messenger derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ASC171 (2 decks)

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