term test 3 Flashcards
what is memory?
Memory is the retention of information over time, it is made up and it is what we interpret. It has three important processes which are encoding, storage, and retrieval/forgetting. It can be visual, auditory, or tactile but it can not be smell or taste, it involves multiple systems such as the conscious and automatic systems, our conscious is the CEO so it does not control much.
Confabulation
It is when we make up information that we think is true, this happens because our memory is not 100% true, all our memories contain confabulated information, our memory has gaps and we fill these gaps with our schema and logic.
Memory encoding
it is a process by which information goes into memory storage. we have to pay attention to encoding information, our attention is a limited resource, and our ability to control it can be taken away from distractions.
what does encoding include
attention, sensory detection, recognition of meaning, and response selection
divided attention
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time such as listening to music and reading, which can be detrimental to the encoding process
sustained attention
is being able to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a period of time such as paying close attention to the notes while studying for an exam
sensory detection
we monitor the environment consciously, with conscious parameters placed so that we ignore all the stimuli around us and respond only to certain ones. for example ignoring the movement of students in a class but responding to someone tapping you on the shoulder
response selection
is responding to certain stimuli but not others, there is always movement and stimuli around us that we do not pay attention to, attention is not under conscious control so it can be affected by many things
levels of processing
they range from shallow all the way to deep
shallow processing
in this, we are processing the structures, i.e structural encoding, for example encoding a color or a letter. it happens in less than a second and is not worth as much energy. it is also unconscious
intermediate processing
it is done when reading, it is the default mode of processing in the brain and is also known as phonemic encoding. (rhyming, etc.)
deep processing
is also called semantic encoding and processing things through meaning and symbolism. the more deep processing that occurs the better the recall of memory. This happens when we take new information we want to learn and apply it to old information we already know and can easily remember and connect them together, this leads to the greatest gain in memory.
facilitating encoding
this includes elaboration, visual imagery, self-referential encoding, rehearsal and over learning, deep and transfer appropriate thinking, distributed practice, and organizing information
elaboration
this refers to the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus, it is basically making an example to understand something, we used to communicate with stories so this is the best tool we have. Greater elaboration is liked with neural activity, especially in the brain’s left frontal lobe, it activates parts of the brain associated with language and our hippocampus
visual imagery
the use of images helps us remember better, it makes us more confident, it is a great way of increasing encoding.
dual code hypothesis
this states that the memory for pictures is better than the memory for words because pictures are stored as both images and verbal codes
self-referential encoding
is paying attention to things our memory is biased towards, for example if I say I am learning about my brain I learn more than when I say I am learning about the brain
rehearsal and over-learning
this is when you do things over and over again and you get better as you do it, over-learning can create better proficiency but only up to a certain point
deep and transfer appropriate thinking
this is the idea that it is easier to recall information in the same method that we learned it. it basically says the more similar the encoding where you learned it the easier the retrieval is. for example, sitting in the same spot of where you usually sit in a lecture in an exam
distributed practice
this is when you spread the practice over time, it maximizes the attention and time to consolidate information when you sleep. Studying for 9 hours is useless because after an hour the attention drops and so it is not as beneficial
organizing information
includes time management and requires consistency and persistence
mnemonic devices
these include verbal and visual
verbal
these include acronyms and rhymes, we can remember things by creating rhymes and acronymes can be used as well. Acronyms are quite problematic because sometimes we can forget what they stand for.
visual
this includes the link method, keywords, method of loci, and SQ3R. The link method is when you imagine you are doing something like if you were to go grocery shopping you imagine yourself putting the things in the shopping cart. The method of loci is the most used method and it is when you use something familiar and associate it with something new. The keyword method is you use something general to symbolize something
encoding specificity principle
this is the idea that the ease of retrieval of a memory depends on the match of encoding with retrieval. It is harder to recall something when shallow learning is examined using a deep-processing technique. For example, if a student were to only study multiple choice questions in the textbook for an essay writing test they wouldn’t do as well. the information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue, a change in context can affect this.
storage
this refers to how information is retained over time and held in memory
atkinson-shriffin theory
states that memory is stored in three separate systems which are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory
sensory memory
it holds information from the world for only a few seconds, it includes echoic and iconic memory, echoic is what we hear and is retained for several seconds, and iconic is what we see and is retained for a 1/4 of a second
sensory memory study
the first one was conducted on iconic memory. It was done by flashing 9 letters and the participants were only able to recall 4 or 5 letters at most. A hypothesis was that all 9 letters were seen but forgetting from iconic memory is really quick so the letters did not transfer to short-term memory
short term memory
it has a limited capacity and retains information for about 30 seconds and it stores it longer than sensory memory
characteristics of short-term memory
it involves rehearsal, which can be broken down into maintenance which is when the information is repeated, and elaboration which is when information is related to previous knowledge. Chunking also improves STM, this is when things are grouped together in order to remember them better. Rehearsal is not the best in the long run and it can be done consciously or automatically. Adding meaning to things allows it to stay in our memory longer
working memory
it is temporary storage and processes information used to solve problems and respond to environmental demands and achieve goals. It combines short-term memory and attention which allows us to hold memory while performing cognitive tasks. this is not the same as short-term memory, because STM is a passive storehouse while WM is an active storehouse.
characteristics of working memory
this is where thinking occurs. It has been useful in the early detection of alzheimers. it consists of the visual, verbal, and central executive, which are shown to be separate so that damaging one of them does not affect the other.
visual (Visuospatial sketchpad)
provides information about the location of objects, it is limited and works independently from the verbal memory store.
verbal (phonological loop)
involved storage of verbal items and it has a limited capacity and is shallow, it is processed in order of presentation and it is subject to interference. it stores speech-based information about sounds of language
central executive
it integrates information between the two and plays a role in attention and organizing. it monitors what we pay attention to and what we ignore. it has a limited capacity
Long term memory
a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time.
serial position curve
supports the existence of STM vs LTM, the primacy reflects LTM, we can not make this go away, and recency reflects STM, we can make this go away. it is the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more than the ones in the middle. primacy refers to items at beginning of list and recency to items at end of the list.
Working memory and LTM
LTM is harder to access but is unlimited in its capacity, and working memory is the opposite. LTM impairment is when a person shows normal working memory but cannot transfer the information to LTM, a working memory deficit is when a person has a memory span of 2 digits but a normal LTM
functional aspects of memory
recall of information may be a function of our interest, we remember things we are more interested in
networks of association
our LTM is organized in clusters of information that are related in meaning, the network is composed of interconnected nodes. A node may contain thoughts, images, smells, etc. Mnemonic devices allow us to add concepts to existing networks. phonemic priming is when you get confused with rhyming words, like silk silk and the ask what do cows drink? Relying on automatic processes can easily cause us to make mistakes
varieties of LTM
declarative and procedural
declarative (explicit)
it is conscious and has to do with who, what, where, when, and why, it is recollecting information that can be verbally communicated (for example recalling events in a movie)
it can be split into semantic and episodic, semantic is facts such as 2+2 is 4. Episodic is memories of specific events, when we think about past memories the hippocampus activates activity that was associated with the memory. the temporal lobes, cerebral cortex, and limbic system play a role in this as well.
implicit or procedural
are unconscious and is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without recollection of that experience. for example, texting or playing tennis. involves priming which is activating information that you already have in storage to help remember new information faster. cerebellum is active here
Theories as to how LTM is organized
schema and connectionist networks, the schema views memory as large knowledge structures while connectionists view it as electrical impulses
schema
is a pre-existing mental concept that helps us organize information, it can be at work when recalling information, it is like a sort of script for an event.
connectionist networks
also called parallel distributed processing is the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons
long term potentiation
connects with connectionist theory and says that if 2 neurons are activated at the same time the connection between them may be strengthened.
memory retrieval
this is when information that was retrieved in memory comes out of storage
factors involved in retrieval
nature of cues and retrieval task that you set
recall
when you retrieve previously learned information
recognition
when you identify learned items
context-dependent memory
recalling information is the same context in which it was learned
what affects memory
patterns of information, schemas, the context of information, etc.
false memory
it involves an error in distinguishing between internally generated experience and eternally generated experience
reminiscence bump
refers to the fact that people remember more events from the second and third decades of life
autobiographical memory
is the recollection of your own experience it has three levels
1. lifetime periods
2. general events
3. event-specific knowledge
may be one of the most important forms of life because it helps us learn from experience
flashbulb memory
a memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy than everyday events, this is evidence that memory for traumatic experiences are usually more accurate than memory for ordinary events
repression
is a defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that they forget it.
motivated forgetting
happens when a person forgets something because it is so painful
retrieval failure
failure of retrieving information you know and this can happen because of problems in storage, time, or personal reasons.
encoding failure
when information was never entered into LTM
interference theory
states that people forget because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember
proactive interfernece
this is when material that was learned before disrupts the recall of material learned later
retroactive interference
when material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier
decay theory
when we learn something new a neurochemical trace forms but over time this trace can disintegrate, this suggests that the passing of time increases forgetting
prospective memory
involves remembering information about doing something in the future, involves timing and context, and failure in this refers to absentmindedness. it fails when retrieval is a conscious effort rather than an automatic process
event-based memory
is better than time based memory because you engage in the behaviour
anterograde amnesia
affects the retention of new information
retrograde amnesia
involves memory loss for a segment of past events, it is more common
psychogenic amnesia
there is no physical trauma but we forget aspects of the past
denial
we are conscious of the thing but we do not believe that it applies to us
seven sins of memory
- memories fade away
- we do not remember what we don’t pay attention to
- our memories can be temporarily blocked
- we can misattribute the source of the memory
- we are suggestible in our memories
- we can show memory distortion
- we often fail to forget the things we would not like to recall
cognitive psychology
study of mental processes
cognition
ways information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing, before cognitive psychology behaviorism was the dominant thinking experimental psychologists
BF skinner
he believed that the human mind is a black box left to philosophers, he considered observable behavior as the proper focus of psychologists, but this had little use for mental processes
computer science
it was a key motivator in the birth of human cognition, Charles Babbage was the father of the computer
the analogy of brain and computer
the physical brain is the hardware and the software is the conginiton
herbert Simon
he said that sensory and perceptual systems provide an input channel and as input comes into the mind mental processes act on it. The transferred input generates information that remains in memory, the information is then retrieved when needed
AI
focuses on creating machines that are capable of performing activities that require intelligence when we do them, which is helpful in tasks that require speed and persistence.
how did the term cognitive psychology come about
this term was adopted as a label for research that was aimed at explaining observable behavior by looking at mental processes and structures that we cannot directly observe
thinking
this involves the manipulation of information mentally by creating concepts and solving problems
concepts
they are mental categories that are used to group things, we are good at creating concepts in order to make sense of the information around us, they tell us what we think but not why we think.
why are concepts important
- allow us to generalize (good for our survival)
- allow us to associate experiences and objects
- makes memory efficient (imagine having to think about how to sit in a chair)
- provides clues as to how to react to something
prototype model
emphasizes that when people evaluate wether something belongs to a certain concept, we compare things with the most common thing in that category.
problem-solving
is finding a way to attain a goal when the goal is not available, when we transform one situation into another to meet a gaol
4 steps to problem-solving
- recognizing the problem
- developing a strategy for solving the issue, this includes making subgoals, working backwards, algorithms, heuristics
- evlauting the solutions and asking ourselves how good this solution is to the problem
- Rethinking the problem and being motivated to improve
algorithms
systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a problem, they are fixed and help solve problems that are formulas, these are great for well-defined problems, it will test all possibilities until we get to the right solution.
heuristics
this suggests a solution to the problem but it does not guarantee it. This is more likely used than algorithms, it helps us narrow down the possible solutions, and is fast, can lead to multiple solutions.
