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term test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

kidney location

A
  • located at dorsal lumbar area outside of the abdomen , between peritoneum and dorsal abdominal muscles outside the peritoneal cavity
  • right kidney more cranial than the left in most domestic animals
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2
Q

gross anatomy of kidney

A
  • bean-shaped structure
  • in cattle , it is lobulated
  • hilus
  • renal pelvis
  • renal cortex
  • renal medulla
  • calyx
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3
Q

hilus - kidney

A
  • indented area in medial side
  • where ureters , nerves , blood and lymph vessels enter and leave the kidney
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4
Q

renal pelvis - kidney

A
  • funnel-shaped area
  • beginning of ureter
  • collects urine produced by renal cortex before it travels through the ureter into the bladder
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5
Q

renal cortex and renal medulla - kidney

A

renal cortex ;
- outer portion of kidney

renal medulla ;
- inner portion around renal pelvis

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6
Q

calyx / calyces - kidney

A
  • cup-like structure
  • formed when renal pelvis extends into the medulla pyramid
  • directs and collects fluids into renal pelvis
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7
Q

microscopic anatomy of kidney

A
  • basic functional unit : nephron

each nephron consists ;
- renal corpuscle
- proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
- loop of henle (LOH)
- distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

renal corpuscle -> PCT -> LOH -> DCT -> urine

  • some parts of a nephron eg renal corpuscle are only in the cortex while others eg loop of henle is only in the medulla
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8
Q

renal corpuscle

A
  • located in renal cortex
  • glomerulus / glomerular tuft ; cluster of capillaries
  • bowman’s capsule ; surrounds the glomerulus to hold the capillaries
  • capsular space / bowman’s space ; between capsule and glomerulus , there is a space
  • filters blood in the first stage of urine formation
  • fluid that is filtered OUT of blood through capillaries and into capsular space = glomerular filtrate
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9
Q

blood supply into glomerulus

A
  • renal artery enters kidneys at the hilus , dividing into smaller arteries and even smaller arterioles
  • afferent glomerular arterioles carries blood into glomerular capillaries of renal corpuscle
  • glomerular capillaries filters some plasma out of the blood into the bowman’s space and it becomes glomerular filtrate
  • efferent glomerular arterioles receives blood from glomerular capillaries
  • A goes in , E goes out
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10
Q

proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

A
  • continuation of capsular space
  • twisting path through the cortex
  • when glomerular filtrate enters the PCT from the capsular space , it becomes tubular filtrate
  • where 65% of reabsorption takes place
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11
Q

loop of henle (LOH)

A
  • long , u-shaped portion of the tubule
  • descends from PCT into medulla (descending LOH)
  • turns and heads upwards back into the cortex (ascending LOH)
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12
Q

distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

A
  • DCT is the continuation of the ascending LOH
  • DCT of all nephrons will drain urine into collecting ducts
  • collecting ducts carries tubular filtrate (which is now waste products only / urine) through the medulla and empties into renal pelvis
  • primary site of action of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
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13
Q

reabsorption in the tubules is possible because …

A
  • efferent glomerular arterioles divide to form peritubular capillaries (small capillaries that surround the tubules)
  • allows oxygen supply to the tubules , tubular reabsorption , tubular secretion
  • peritubular capillaries will converge at the end to form a larger vein (renal vein)
  • renal vein leaves the kidney at the hilus to join the caudal vena cava
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14
Q

3 steps of urine formation

A
  • kidney filters unwanted substances to excrete them
    1. glomerular filtration
    2. tubular reabsorption
    3. tubular secretion
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15
Q

glomerular filtration

A
  • glomerular capillaries are permeable (not enough to allow blood cells and large proteins to pass through)
  • plasma proteins and substances such as calcium that are bound to them are unable to pass
  • fluids leave bloodstream into capsular space
  • in glomerular capillaries , blood pressure is very high and forces some plasma out into capsular space
  • glomerular filtrate = primitive urine (first stage)
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16
Q

glomerular filtrate

A
  • fluid that passes through glomerular capillaries into capsule space
  • any product that is smaller than plasma protein or freely dissolved in plasma appears in glomerular filtrate
  • eg sugars , amino acids , toxins
  • glomerular filtrate in the capsule space will move on to the next section of the renal tubule (proximal convoluted tubule PCT)
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17
Q

reabsorption

A
  • ensures the body gets back small useful molecules from the filtrate
  • eg amino acids , peptides , glucose , water , Na+ , Cl-
  • substances to be reabsorbed pass through the tubular lumen , tubular wall and capillary wall back into the bloodstream
  • 65% of reabsorption takes place in the PCT , and remaining in the DCT / LOH
  • 80% of water , sodium chloride & bicarbonate are reabsorbed
  • 100% of glucose & amino acids are reabsorbed [if they are detected in the urine , it could suggest problems]
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18
Q

sodium / glucose & amino acid / potassium & calcium / chloride / water reabsorption

A

sodium ;
- PCT , LOH , DCT

glucose & amino acid ;
- PCT

potassium & calcium ;
- PCT

chloride ;
- diffuses through in response to an imbalance created by sodium reabsorption
- moves with sodium

water ;
- follows ions through osmosis
- once sodium , glucose , amino acids & chloride have left tubular filtrate , water molecules follow

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19
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - urinary

A
  • ADH from pituitary gland
  • acts on DCT to promote water reabsorption
  • tells DCT to reabsorb more water
  • concentrates urine
  • released when an animal is dehydrated or hypotensive to increase water content in the blood
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20
Q

alosterone

A
  • from adrenal cortex
  • acts on DCT to increase reabsorption of sodium
  • tells DCT to reabsorb more sodium
  • more sodium reabsorbed = osmotic imbalance = water molecules follow
  • concentrates urine
  • Na+ reabsorbed = K+ secrete
  • if sodium is taken in, must be replaced by potassium to maintain salt balance
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21
Q

tubular secretion

A
  • substances from blood capillaries move into tubules / urine
  • substances not filtered in the glomerulus eg urea , ammonia OR due to reabsorption of sodium eg potassium , hydrogen for salt and acid-base balance
  • occurs in PCT , LOH and DCT
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22
Q

renin - osmoregulation

A
  • hormone secreted in glomerulus in response to low arterial pressure
  • if pressure is low , glomerulus cannot filter blood to form glomerular filtrate
  • converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin
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23
Q

angiotensin - osmoregulation

A
  • vasoconstriction to raise blood pressure
  • the constriction stimulates the release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex , causing water to be reabsorbed into the bloodstream
  • more water = higher pressure = glomerulus able to filter blood to form glomerular filtrate
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24
Q

ureters

A
  • leavers kidney at the hilus
  • has 3 layers :
    1. outer fibrous
    2. middle smooth muscle (propels urine by peristaltic contractions)
    3. inner layer lined with transitional epithelium (allows ureters to stretch as urine passes through)
  • enters urinary bladder at oblique angle , forming a valve to prevent back flow
  • when bladder is full , urine presses on the entrance to close the valve
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25
Q

urinary bladder

A
  • lined with transitional epithelium , can stretch as it is filled
  • wall of the urinary bladder has smooth muscle
  • around the neck of the urinary bladder , there are sphincter muscles
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26
Q

sphincter muscles

A
  • internal sphincter : smooth muscles under involuntary control
  • external sphincter : skeletal muscle under voluntary control , allows control of urination
  • when the bladder is full , it sends a signal to the spinal cord which tells the smooth muscle / internal sphincter to tract
  • the contraction of the smooth muscle when the bladder is full , we get the urge to pee
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27
Q

urethra

A
  • continuation of the neck of urinary bladder
  • carries urine from bladder to the external environment
  • lined with transitional epithelium that allows it to stretch
  • female ; shorter , straighter , only urinary function
  • male ; longer , curved , runs down centre of the penis and also carries semen
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28
Q

control of urination process

A
  • urination = excretion of urine from urinary bladder to urethra to external environment
  • build-up of pressure in the bladder activates stretch receptors (senses pressure) in the bladder wall
  • stretch receptors activate spinal reflex that cause smooth muscles of the bladder to contract
  • contraction gives the sensation of needing to urinate
  • voluntary control of the external sphincter (skeletal muscle) around the neck of the bladder allows temporary control of the urination
  • house-trained animals exercise some form of voluntary control and temporarily hold urine (eg grass trained dogs)
  • however , beyond a certain pressure limit , the sphincter must relax to release the urine
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29
Q

formation of urine

A

filtration -> reabsorption -> secretion -> concentration -> excretion

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30
Q

mitosis

A
  • cell division that results in 2 daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell
  • aka diploids
  • daughter cells are identical to each other and parent cell
  • typical form for tissue growth , but NOT for sperm and ovum .
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31
Q

meiosis

A
  • cell division that results in daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
  • aka haploids
  • daughter cells are not identical to the parent cell
  • sex cells eg sperm and ovum are produced this way
  • this ensures the fertilised egg from the union of sperm and ovum has the same number of chromosomes as a parent cell (half + half = one)
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32
Q

components of male reproductive system

A
  • testes
  • dust system (epididymis , vas deferens , urethra)
  • external genetalia (penis , scrotum)
  • accessory glands (prostate gland , bulbourethral gland that dogs do not have , vesicle glands in rats only)
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33
Q

testes

A
  • produces sperm cells and testosterone
  • “held” inside the scrotum , outside the abdomen as normal internal body temperature is too high for sperm development
  • concentration of testosterone influences the development of sperm and other male secondary sexual characteristics (eg bigger body, having penis and testes)
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34
Q

testes microscopic

A
  • seminiferous tubules ; coiled mass of tubules , produces sperm
  • seminiferous tubules eventually combine / join to form epididymis (a long convoluted tubule)
  • interstitial cells ; between the tubules , secretes testosterone
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35
Q

scrotum

A
  • skin pouch that houses testes
  • regulates temperature of testes
  • maintains testes at 3 degrees celsius lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm’s viability
  • 2 muscles attached to the scrotum : cremaster and dartos , pull scrotum close to the body when it is cold and relax when it is warm
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36
Q

epididymis

A
  • highly convoluted duct , caudal to testes
  • tail of epididymis continues as vas deferens (epididymis eventually converge to form vas deferens . sperm goes from epididymis to vas deferens to prostate , urethra and out)
  • sperm that is formed in the seminiferous tubules will mature as they pass into the epididymis
  • sperm is stored in the epididymis before they are propelled along vas deferens during ejaculation
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37
Q

vas deferens

A
  • aka ductus deferens
  • carries sperm quickly from epididymis to urethra during ejaculation
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38
Q

penis

A
  • urethra surrounded by layers of erectile tissue , muscle and connective tissue
  • erectile tissues have many holes where blood can enter to erect the penis , enabling entry to the vagina
  • penis has rich blood supply with many nerve endings
  • delivers semen (sperm + fluids) from the testes into the female reproductive tract during mating
  • also expels urine from the bladder to the outside via urethra
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39
Q

os penis

A
  • embedded in erectile tissue close to the tip is the os penis
  • os penis allows the entry of the penis into the vagina before erection is fully complete
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40
Q

accessory glands

A
  • semen = sperm + fluid
  • fluid = secretions from various accessory glands
  • alkaline fluid (includes electrolytes, etc) to protect the sperm by counteracting the acidity of the female reproductive tract
  • vagina = acidic , good for female’s health but hard for sperm to survive . alkaline fluid counteracts that
  • different species have different combinations of accessory glands
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41
Q

prostate gland

A
  • present in all domestic animals
  • particularly large in dogs
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42
Q

bulbourethral glands

A
  • only in cats and a few other animals
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43
Q

seminal vesicle glands

A
  • not present in dogs and cats
  • rats have
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44
Q

components of female reproductive system

A
  • ovary
  • uterine tube
  • uterus (uterine horns , uterine body)
  • cervix
  • vagina
  • vulva
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45
Q

ovaries

A
  • lies on each side of the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity (very close to kidneys)
  • produces ova/eggs
  • produces oestrogen during follicle development stage and preparing for mating
  • products progesterone to prepare for and maintain pregnancy by creating a comfortable environment in uterine lining
  • contains primary follicles which develop into mature follicles
  • number of follicles in a female is fixed from birth
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46
Q

primary follicles

A
  • within ovarian connective tissue
  • contains an immature ovum surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells
  • each follicle has only one egg cell
  • can develop into a mature follicle
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47
Q

mature follicle

A
  • contains small amount of fluid and an ovum
  • each follicle has only one egg cell
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48
Q

oviduct

A
  • aka uterine tube / fallopian tube
  • small tubes that extend from the tips of uterine horns
  • finger-like projections at the tip known as fimbriae which capture the ovum released from ovaries
  • also a site for fertilisation (sperm -> vagina -> cervix -> uterus -> oviduct -> meets ovum)
  • cilia inside the oviduct move the fertilised ova slowly through uterine horns towards the uterus
  • fertilised = embeds in uterus = pregnant
  • not fertilised = still pushed eventually
  • collects ova as they are released from ovaries
  • conveys ova from ovaries to the uterine horns
  • provide correct environment for the survival of both ova and sperm to aid fertilisation
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49
Q

uterus

A
  • Y-shaped (horns and body)

3 walls ;
1. endometrium
2. myometrium
3. perimetrium

  • provides a new site where embryos can develop into a baby
  • provides means for developing embryos to receive nutrients from the mother via placenta / umbilical cord
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50
Q

endometrium - uterus

A
  • inner mucosal layer
  • a lot of blood supply
  • secretes mucous and other substances
  • allows implantation of a fertilised egg
  • this layer thickens during pregnancy to provide nutrition to the embryo and support the development of the placenta
  • nutrients from mother’s blood vessels -> placenta -> embryo
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51
Q

myometrium - uterus

A
  • middle layer , smooth muscle
  • strong contractions during parturition
  • assists in pushing the baby out
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52
Q

perimetrium - uterus

A
  • outer visceral layer of peritoneum
  • suspends uterus from the dorsal body wall
  • fixes uterus in its position
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53
Q

cervix

A
  • short , thick-walled muscular sphincter
  • connects uterine body with vagina
  • lumen / inside space = cervical canal
  • it is normally tightly closed to prevent uterine infections , only dilating to allow sperm or foetus to pass
  • during pregnancy , cervical canal is blocked by a mucous plug which ensures bacteria and foreign particles cannot go in , protecting the embryo from infections
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54
Q

vagina

A
  • a tube that leads to the external opening
  • receives the penis at breeding
  • serves as birth canal at birth
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55
Q

vulva

A
  • external part of the female reproductive system
  • guarded by a pair of vertical labia
  • lying between the labia is a knob of erectile tissue aka clitoris
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56
Q

uniparous species

A
  • one mature ovum produced per cycle only
  • rare to have more
  • humans , horses , cows
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57
Q

multiparous species

A
  • multiple ova produced per cycle
  • big litters
  • cats , dogs , sow
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58
Q

ovarian cycle

A
  • starts with primary follicle with an immature ovum in the centre
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH from pituitary gland) stimulates selected follicles to mature
  • as follicle grows , fluid holes form and continue to “merge” and get larger (more fluid)
  • when the follicle and ovum have reached the maximum size , it is considered fully mature .
  • oestrogen will be produced by follicular cells to assist in stimulating the release of the ovum
  • luteinising hormone from pituitary gland is released and ovulation occurs as a result
  • the surface of a mature follicle will weaken and rupture , releasing the ovum along with fluid into the oviduct
  • empty follicle fills with blood after the ovum is released
  • after an ovum has left the follicle , the empty follicle develops into corpus luteum
  • if there is pregnancy , the corpus luteum is maintained through an endocrine signal
  • if no pregnancy , the corpus luteum regresses
  • cycle ends when corpus luteum has regressed.
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59
Q

corpus luteum

A
  • after an ovum has left the follicle , the empty follicle develops into corpus luteum
  • the process is influenced by the stimulation of luteinising hormone
  • produces progesterone
  • if there is pregnancy , the corpus luteum is maintained through an endocrine signal
  • if no pregnancy , the corpus luteum regresses
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60
Q

progesterone

A
  • necessary to maintain pregnancy
  • thickens uterine lining and prepares for the implantation of fertilised egg
  • allows fertilised egg to grow comfortably
  • lack of progesterone may cause an unfavourable condition for the egg and may result in miscarriage
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61
Q

4 stages of estrous cycle - bitches

A
  • proestrus (approx 9 days)
  • estrus (approx 9 days)
  • metestrus / diestrus (if not pregnant , 90 days. if pregnant , 50-60 days , delivery at approx 63 days after ovulation)
  • anestrus (5 months)
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62
Q

proestrus - bitches

A
  • initial phase, approximately 9 days
  • body prepares for potential mating and pregnancy
  • females release pheromones to attract males , but mating does not take place yet
  • increased oestrogen in the blood (relate to maturation of follicles and ovarian cycle)
  • oestrogen helps the body to prepare
  • swelling of vulva
  • bloody vulval discharge
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63
Q

estrus - bitches

A
  • when follicle is mature enough to release the ovum
  • approximately 9 days
  • females become receptive to mating
  • may actively seek out males and exhibit behavioural changes eg restlessness , changes in appetite , and increased frequency of urination
  • oestrogen declines and luteinising hormone reaches its peak level
  • triggers ovulation (releasing ovum)
  • if a female mates with a male , fertilisation can take place
  • corpus luteum forms in place of the empty follicle
  • regress if not pregnant
  • maintain and secrete progesterone if pregnant
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64
Q

metestrus / diestrus - bitches

A
  • approximately 60-90 days
  • if fertilisation has occurred , corpus luteum maintains and produces progesterone
  • if no fertilisation has occurred , corpus luteum regresses and the female will enter a non-pregnant diestrus phase where uterus returns to the normal state
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65
Q

anestrus - btiches

A
  • several months
  • lack of ovarian activity , reproductive system rests before the next cycle begins
  • if not pregnant , progesterone level gradually declines
  • when a new cycle is about to start , some primary follicles will begin to develop
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66
Q

fertilisation

A
  • ovum + sperm = fertilisation = zygote
  • sperm is propelled up the ductus deferens into the urethra , through the penis and into the female reproductive tract
  • sperm “swim” from the vagina through the cervix into the uterus
  • once a sperm penetrates the ovum , further sperms are prevented from entering due to a rapid chemical change that thickens the ovum’s surface
  • zygote = diploid = ready for mitosis
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67
Q

pregnancy

A
  • after fertilisation , zygote undergoes mitosis
  • as it is dividing , it also moves along the oviduct
  • once it reaches the uterine horn , it has many cells and a fluid cavity ; it is now known as a blastocyst
  • blastocyst implants in the uterine horn and continues to divide
  • endometrium and myometrium are thickened by progesterone = new blood vessels grow and mucous secretes = more nutrients and comfortable for blastocyst to maintain pregnancy
  • increased progesterone
  • physical changes eg weight gain , enlargement of abdomen and development of mammary glands
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68
Q

stage 1 of parturition

A
  • can last up to 24 hours
  • restless , nesting behaviour
  • decreased body temperature
  • uterine contractions
  • cervix gradually dilates to allow the passage of puppies
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69
Q

stage 2 of parturition

A
  • can last up to a few hours to a full day
  • active delivery
  • uterine contractions intensify and female dog must push to deliver each puppy
  • puppies are enclosed in individual amniotic sacs which may rupture during delivery
  • mother typically breaks the sac , cleans the puppies and stimulates their breathing
  • interval between each puppy can vary , but it usually ranges between 10 minutes to an hour
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70
Q

stage 3 of parturition

A
  • involves the delivery of the placenta
  • placenta nourished and protected puppies during gestation
  • female dogs may eat the placenta which is natural as it can provide nutrients and clean the whelping area
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71
Q

major endocrine glands in cats

A
  • pituitary gland
  • thyroid gland
  • parathyroid gland
  • pancreas
  • ovaries
  • testes
  • adrenal glands
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72
Q

mechanisms controlling hormone secretion

A
  • nerve impulses (eg adrenaline from adrenal gland in response to nerve impulses from sympathetic nervous system)
  • stimulating or releasing hormone (eg secretion of thyroid hormone is controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone from pituitary gland)
  • levels of certain chemicals in the blood (eg glucose high , pancreas releases insulin)
  • negative feedback system (eg oestrogen secreted after the follicle has matured prevents further secretion of FSH from pituitary gland)
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73
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • small , ventral to the hypothalamus

2 portions with different functions and structure :
- anterior pituitary (cranial portion) ; produces hormone
- posterior pituitary (caudal portion) ; stores and releases hormones produced in the hypothalamus , does not produce any hormone

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74
Q

hormones released by pituitary gland (anterior pituitary)

A
  • growth hormone
  • prolactin
  • thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinising hormone (LH)
  • interstitial cell stimulating hormone
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75
Q

growth hormone (GH)

A
  • aka somatotropin hormone
  • promotes body growth in young animals
  • helps to regulate metabolism of proteins , carbohydrates and lipids
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76
Q

prolactin

A
  • triggers and maintains lactation (secretion of milk from mammary glands)
  • if nipple is stimulated by nursing , prolactin will continue to be released
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77
Q

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

A
  • stimulates the development of the thyroid gland
  • stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone
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78
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A
  • stimulates the growth and development of the adrenal gland
  • stimulates the release of hormones from the adrenal gland (eg cortisol)
  • in sudden stress , hypothalamus is stimulated and ACTH is released very quickly (cortisol -> signs of nervousness eg heart beating fast)
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79
Q

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

A
  • female : growth and development of ovarian follicles (source of ovum)
  • also stimulates follicular cells to secrete oestrogen (more oestrogen = negative feedback = less FSH)
  • male : acts on tubules of the testis to aid sperm production
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80
Q

luteinising hormone (LH)

A
  • stimulated by the presence of oestrogen in the blood
  • stimulates mature follicles to rupture and release their ovum
  • signals the empty follicle to form yellow body / corpus luteum
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81
Q

interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)

A
  • stimulates the interstitial cells in the testes to secrete testosterone when concentration is low in the body
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82
Q

hormones stored and released by the pituitary gland (posterior pituitary)

A
  • does not produce hormones
  • only stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  • oxytocin
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83
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - endocrine

A
  • acts on kidney
  • reabsorbs more water from the urine and returns it to the bloodstream (more concentrated urine)
  • released when the receptor in the hypothalamus detects a change of osmotic pressure in the blood due to dehydration
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84
Q

oxytocin - endocrine

A
  • acts on mammary glands during late pregnancy
  • causes milk to be released in response to a neonates suckling
  • at the end of gestation , oxytocin causes the contraction of the smooth muscle of the uterus which results in parturition of the foetuses
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85
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • ventral to first few rings of the trachea
  • triiodothyronine (T3)
  • thyroxine (T4)
  • they regulate metabolic rate of body cells and are essential for normal growth
  • allows animal to generate heat , maintain a constant internal body temperature and maintain blood glucose
  • if metabolic rate is too high , nutrients are used too fast , body produces a lot of heat
    ** if metabolic rate is too low , nutrients are used too slow and body weight will increase with just a bit of eating . body doesn’t produce enough heat
  • calcitonin
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86
Q

calcitonin

A
  • regulates calcium level in the blood (together with parathyroid hormone)
  • lowers calcium levels by inhibiting the rate of decalcification of bone and stimulating bone growth
  • tells bone not to release calcium into the blood and absorb more calcium from the blood
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87
Q

hypothyroidism

A
  • undersecretion of thyroid hormones (especially T3 and T4)
  • stunted growth
  • hair loss
  • slow heart rate
  • fat
  • sluggish
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88
Q

hyperthyroidism

A
  • oversecretion of thyroid hormones (especially T3 and T4)
  • hyperactive
  • aggressive
  • increased appetite
  • fast heart rate
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89
Q

parathyroid gland

A
  • small nodules in , on or near the thyroid glands
  • parathyroid hormone (PTH / parathormone)
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90
Q

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A
  • maintain blood calcium levels
  • along with calcitonin
  • calcitonin deposits calcium from the blood into the bone when blood calcium levels are too high
  • parathyroid hormone reabsorbs calcium from the bone into the blood when blood calcium levels are too low
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91
Q

pancreas

A
  • located in the curve of the duodenum
  • small islets inside the endocrine component have cells that secrete 3 hormones
  • beta cells : insulin
  • alpha cells : glucagon
  • delta cells : somatostatin
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92
Q

insulin

A
  • produced by beta cells of the pancreas
  • response to high blood glucose
  • decreases blood glucose by increasing the uptake of glucose into the blood cells and storing excess glucose as glycogen in the liver
  • lack of insulin = diabetes mellitus , unable to lower blood glucose
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93
Q

glucagon

A
  • produced by alpha cells of the pancreas
  • response to low blood glucose
  • signals liver to break down glycogen to release glucose
94
Q

somatostatin

A
  • produced by delta cells of the pancreas
  • inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon
  • if insulin / glucagon has finished their jobs and blood glucose has returned to regular levels , somatostatin inhibits their secretion
95
Q

adrenal gland

A
  • in a pair , at cranial ends of the kidneys
  • adrenal cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla (inner)
96
Q

adrenal cortex (outer)

A

produces :
- aldosterone
- glucocorticoids
- sex hormones

97
Q

aldosterone - endocrine

A
  • acts on the kidney at the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
  • increases reabsorption of sodium ions (water molecules follow to maintain balance)
  • more concentrated urine
  • regulates acid-base balance
98
Q

glucocorticoids

A
  • cortisone
  • corticosterone
  • low levels that increase in response to stress
  • increases blood glucose levels (that’s why there may be hyperglycaemia during stress)
  • when present in large quantity , it depresses inflammation reactions
99
Q

sex hormones

A
  • androgens (male)
  • oestrogen (female)
  • both are present in all animals , but the opposite sex hormones will be in small quantities with minimal effect
  • concentration is important : low testosterone will cause tiredness
100
Q

adrenal medulla (inner)

A

produces :
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
- prepares the body for emergency action / fight or flight
- secretion is controlled by the autonomic / sympathetic nervous system (involuntary)

101
Q

functions of epinephrine and norepinerphrine

A
  • raise blood glucose levels by breaking down glycogen in the liver (increases energy levels)
  • increase heart rate and respiration (meet high demand of oxygen in times of stress)
  • dilate blood vessels (increase supply of glucose and oxygen)
  • decrease the activity of the GI tract and bladder (as they are less important in stress)
102
Q

ovaries - endocrine

A
  • oestrogen
  • progesterone
  • relaxin
103
Q

oestrogen

A
  • prepares animal for mating
  • prepares body to produce follicles and release ovum
  • causes behaviour associated with estrus cycle
  • prepares reproductive tract and external genetalia for mating
104
Q

relaxin

A
  • produced by ovaries in later stages of pregnancy
  • softens and relaxes ligaments around the birth canal
  • prepares for parturition and foetus delivery
105
Q

testes

A
  • testosterone
106
Q

testosterone

A
  • produced in response to ICSH (interstitial cell stimulating hormone) from anterior pituitary gland
  • leads to the development of male characteristics
  • muscle development
  • male behavioural patterns
  • development of sperm
107
Q

nervous system

A
  • brain , spinal cord , sensory organs and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body
  • allows an animal to respond in coordinated manner to both the demands of the external environment and internal changes within the body
108
Q

3 functions of the nervous system

A
  • receive information / stimuli from external and internal environments via sensory nerves
  • analyse and integrate these stimuli from the sensory pathway to the central nervous system (CNS)
  • after a response has been decided , motor nerves send a signal to initiate response of effector
109
Q

movement of nerve impulses

A

sensory nerves receive stimulus -> CNS analyse stimulus -> makes decision what to do -> motor nerves initiate response according to CNS decision

110
Q

peripheral nerves

A
  • cranial nerves
  • spinal nerves (sensory and motor)
  • autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
111
Q

central nervous system

A
  • brain
  • spinal cord
112
Q

sensory nerves

A
  • carries information into the central nervous system
  • has 2 types
  • somatic : receives stimuli from external environment ; skin , muscle , joints , eyes , voluntary control (eg seeing a snake)
  • visceral : receives stimuli from internal environment ; internal organs , glands , blood vessels , involuntary control (eg stomach sends message to CNS that more gastric juice is needed when food is consumed , prompting gallbladder to prepare to release bile and liver to prepare for digestion)
113
Q

motor nerves

A
  • carries information from the central nervous system
  • somatic nervous system : voluntary , skeletal muscles (eg hand movements)
  • autonomic nervous system : involuntary , cardiac muscles , smooth muscles , glands (eg make heart beat faster)
  • autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions ; sympathetic and parasympathetic
114
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A
  • controls body in times of stress (eg seeing a snake = stimulates adrenal glands to secrete adrenaline)
  • opposite effect on organs compared to parasympathetic nervous system
  • dilate pupils
  • inhibit saliva
  • increase heartbeat
  • relax airways
  • inhibit stomach activity
  • stimulate release of glucose
  • inhibit gallbladder
  • inhibit intestinal activity
  • relax bladder
  • promote ejaculation and vaginal contraction
115
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • controls body in times of rest (eg during sleep)
  • opposite effect on organs compared to sympathetic nervous system
  • constrict pupils
  • stimulate saliva
  • slow heartbeat
  • constrict airways
  • stimulate stomach activity
  • inhibit release of glucose
  • stimulate gallbladder
  • stimulate intestinal activity
  • contract bladder
  • promote erection of genitals
116
Q

cells of the nervous system

A
  • neurons / nerve cells
  • gila / glial cells are support and protect neurons
117
Q

structure of neurons

A
  • dendrite branch out from dendron to receive stimuli
  • cell body : soma ; has nucleus , cell membrane
  • long structure / tail : axon
  • bundle of axons is called a nerve fibre
  • schwann cells protect the axon by secreting myelin
  • forms a myelin sheath
118
Q

glial cells

A
  • many types
  • schwann cells (PNS)
  • oligodendrocytes (CNS)
  • both are responsible to myelin sheath that facilitates impulse transmission in an axon
  • multiple glial cells cover the length of an axon
  • there are small gaps between each glial cell (nodes of ranvier)
  • myelin is insulating and thus nerve impulses jump from node to node and are conducted through the axon at a much faster speed
119
Q

grey and white matter - nervous system

A
  • myelin wrapped axons appear white
  • unmyelinated axons , dendrites and cell body will appear grey
120
Q

action potential

A
  • electrical signal that allows nerve impulses to spread along the axon of a neuron
  • generation process involves several membrane mechanisms :
  • resting membrane potential
  • depolarisation
  • resting phase
  • repolarisation
  • hyperpolarisation
121
Q

resting membrane potential

A
  • resting status , no need for action potential
  • charge inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside (mainly due to the distribution of different ions on each side)
  • the difference between the charges on the inside and outside = resting membrane potential
  • typically around -70 mV
  • outside of cell : positive , a lot of positively charged sodium ions
  • inside of cell : negative ; some positive ions (eg potassium) but much less than outside , negatively charged proteins
  • ion channels ; voltage-gated (important in nervous system context) , Ligand-gated , mechanically gated
122
Q

depolarisation

A
  • polar = outside positive , inside negative
  • depolarisation = remove polar situation / difference in charge between the 2 sides
  • positive must enter and negative must leave
  • when a neuron receive a strong enough signal or signal from a neighbouring neuron , sodium ion channels open temporarily and allow sodium ions to rush into the neuron
  • influx of positive charge in the neuron (less negative inside , depolarising)
  • charge inside the neuron will reach a peak (30 - 40 mV) and sodium will stop coming in.
  • depolarisation leads to activation of the neuron
  • as ion channels along the axon receive stimulus , they open
  • thus , the signal can pass to the end of the axon (depolarisation excites node of ranvier 1 , action potential , excites node of ranvier 2 , etc)
123
Q

rising phase , generating action potential

A
  • rapid influx of positively charged sodium ions leads to a sharp rise in membrane potential
  • reverse polarity
  • inside becomes more positively charged than the outside
  • creates action potential (AP)
  • depolarised neurons have AP which generates electrical impulse that travels along the axon
124
Q

repolarisation

A
  • after the charge inside the neuron reaches its peak of 30 - 40 mV
  • potassium ion channel opens
  • potassium ions inside the cell go out
  • positive charge ions go out and the inside becomes more negative
  • sodium ions inside the cell may also be used by the cell after some time
  • cell goes back to its negative resting potential
125
Q

hyperpolarisation

A
  • in some neurons , the escape of potassium ions can briefly cause membrane potential to be more negative than resting membrane potential
  • usually short lived
126
Q

conduction of action potential between the neurons

A
  • happens at synapse : end of an axon / start of another neuron (gap between 2 neurons)
  • when action potential reaches the end of the axon (terminal) , translated to chemical signals / neurotransmitters
  • receptors on the dendrite of the next neuron are stimulated by neurotransmitters
  • the next neuron is activated , and a new AP would be generated in the next neuron
127
Q

types of neurotransmitters

A
  • excitatory neurotransmitters
  • inhibitory neurotransmitters
128
Q

excitatory neurotransmitters

A
  • causes influx of sodium so that neurons will be depolarised
  • acetylcholine
  • norepinephrine
  • epinephrine
  • dopamine
  • serotonin
  • glutamate
129
Q

inhibitory neurotransmitters

A
  • causes entry of chloride ions which lead to hyperpolarisation (when hyperpolarised, cell will not pass a signal)
  • gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
  • glycine
130
Q

brain - central nervous system

A
  • cerebrum (typically left and right cerebrum , cerebral cortex)
  • diencephalon (thalamus , hypothalamus)
  • brain stem (very important for life , midbrain , pons , medulla oblongata)
  • cerebellum (caudal to cerebrum)
131
Q

cerebrum - brain

A
  • controls conscious activities , intelligence , memory , language and muscles
132
Q

cortex - brain

A
  • organised into different functional regions
  • highly developed (especially in humans)
  • in higher species (eg humans) , the cortex has a bigger surface area due to folds
  • functional regions : sensory , motor areas , auditory areas , visual areas , higher functional areas (eg prefrontal cortex in humans)
133
Q

functional regions in the cortex - brain

A
  • sensory : receive somatic sensory information from different parts of the body
  • motor : initiate / coordinate motor activity in the muscles
  • auditory : receive hearing information from the ears
  • visual : receive visual information from the eyes
  • higher functional areas (eg prefrontal cortex in humans) : solving complex tasks
134
Q

cerebellum - brain

A
  • responsible for coordination of movement , balance and posture
  • if damaged , may not be able to move in a straight line and movements become jerky
135
Q

brain sterm

A
  • medulla oblongata , pons , midbrain
  • responsible for vital life functions
  • breathing , heartbeat , blood pressure
  • many cranial nerve pairs originate from the brain stem
136
Q

diencephalon

A
  • below the cerebrum
  • relay station between brainstem and cerebrum
  • thalamus : relay station for sensory inputs to the cerebrum
  • hypothalamus : interface between nervous system and endocrine system
137
Q

protection of the CNS

A
  • CNS protected by cranium , vertebral column and meninges
138
Q

cranium

A
  • bones of the skull
  • hard outer covering to the brain
139
Q

meninges

A
  • coverings of the brain and spinal cord
  • 3 layers of membrane (surface , middle , deep)
  • dura mater : double-layered , periosteal and meningeal , external covering blow the bone of skull
  • arachnoid layer : middle , web-like layer
  • pia mater : internal layer
140
Q

brain ventricles and fluid

A
  • network of cavities within the brain
  • filled with fluid (CSF - cerebrospinal fluid)
  • CSF is in both the brain and spinal cord
141
Q

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A
  • cushions the brain within the skull
  • shock absorber
  • circulates nutrients and chemicals
  • removes waste products from CNS
  • similar function to blood except it doesn’t contain blood cells
  • composition is similar to blood plasma but without blood cells
  • circulated in brain ventricles and spinal cavity in the arachnoid space (space below the arachnoid layer of meninges)
142
Q

cranial nerves

A
  • 12 nerve pairs that originate from the brain stem
  • each nerve may contain axons of motor neurons , sensory neurons or a combination of both

I - olfactory
II - optic
III - oculomotor
IV - trochlear
V - trigeminal
VI - abducens
VII - facial
VIII - vestibulocochlear
IX - glossopharyngeal
X - vagus
XI - accessory
XII - hypoglossal

143
Q

cranial nerve I

A
  • olfactory
  • smell
144
Q

cranial nerve II

A
  • optic
  • sight
145
Q

cranial nerve III

A
  • oculomotor
  • moves eye and pupil
146
Q

cranial nerve IV

A
  • trochlear
  • moves eye
147
Q

cranial nerve V

A
  • trigeminal
  • face sensation
148
Q

cranial nerve VI

A
  • abducens
  • moves eye
149
Q

cranial nerve VII

A
  • facial
  • moves face
  • salivation
150
Q

cranial nerve VIII

A
  • vestibulocochlear
  • hearing
  • balance
151
Q

cranial nerve IX

A
  • glossopharyngeal
  • taste
  • swallow
152
Q

cranial nerve X

A
  • vagus
  • heart rate
  • digestion
153
Q

cranial nerve XI

A
  • accessory
  • moves head
154
Q

cranial nerve XII

A
  • hypoglossal
  • moves tongue
155
Q

spinal cord

A
  • consists of well-organised nerve fibres running in tracts
  • uniform structure throughout entire length
  • myelinated outer white matter surrounding central unmyelinated grey matter
  • enveloped by meninges and surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
  • CSF also flows within the central canal
156
Q

cross-section of the spinal cord

A
  • grey matter displays a distinctive “butterfly” shape
  • dorsal horns / nerve roots ; houses cell bodies of the sensory neurons (smaller than motor)
  • ventral horns / nerve roots stand out ; houses cell bodies of the large motor neurons
  • central canal : continuation of brain ventricle , filled with CSF (cushioning , shock absorber , etc)
157
Q

reflexes

A
  • involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus
  • eg pulling your finger back from a hot object
  • reflex arcs which are organised at spinal cord level without involvement of the brain
  • response is very fast and doesn’t go through the brain , protecting the body from potential harm due to the short neuronal circuit
158
Q

neuronal circuit in reflexes

A
  • when your hand touches something very hard ,
  • sensory neurons forward sensory information to the spinal cord via dorsal nerve root
  • motor neurons in spinal cord forward information to the muscle via ventral nerve root
  • muscle are effectors that quickly remove the hand from the hot object.
159
Q

reflex arc

A
  • receptor , nerve endings in the skin that receive the sensation
  • sensory neuron passes information to the spinal cord via dorsal nerve root
  • spinal cord quickly decides what action to take
  • motor neuron passes information to the muscles via ventral nerve root
  • muscles are effectors that perform the action
160
Q

taste buds

A
  • organs responsible for taste
  • chemical receptors on dorsal side of the tongue receive chemical signals from food
  • chemical signals stimulate taste cells to produce a signal
  • connected to nerve endings / sensory nerves , which send the signal to CNS
  • 2 types : taste cell , surrounded by supporting cell
161
Q

which nerves carry taste information to the brain?

A
  • cranial nerves IX (9 - glossopharyngeal) and VII (7 - facial)
  • facial nerve carries taste information from the FRONT of the tongue to the brain
  • glossopharyngeal nerve carries taste information from the BACK of the tongue to the brain
162
Q

sense of smell

A
  • made possible by olfactory epithelium covering the naval cavities
  • odour molecules move in the air
  • when the molecules contact their specific receptors , it can be translated into a signal
  • odorant -> receptors that match its shape -> chemical reaction within the receptor cell
  • activated receptor cell sends nerve impulse
  • impulse travels through olfactory nerve (I) to the olfactory bulb
163
Q

structure of the eyes

A
  • outer fibrous layer (sclera - consists of sclera and cornea)
  • middle layer (uvea - consists of iris , ciliary body , choroid)
  • inner nervous layer (retina - consists of retina)
164
Q

sclera

A
  • white layer surrounding the eyes
  • connects with cornea to form outer sclera layer
165
Q

cornea

A
  • dome-shaped structure covering the pupils / iris area
  • connects with sclera to form outer sclera layer
166
Q

iris

A
  • controls amount of light entering the eye
  • contraction of radial and circular smooth muscles to control the size of pupil (circular contract = smaller , radial contract = dilated)
  • coloured part of the eye
167
Q

ciliary body

A
  • contains ciliary muscles muscles that attach the suspensory ligaments of the lens
  • pulls the suspensory ligament attached to the lens to control thickness and shape
  • contract = lens thinner , relax = lens thicker
168
Q

suspensory ligaments

A
  • continuation of ciliary body
  • suspends the lens
169
Q

choroid

A
  • pigmented vascular layer
  • layer right beneath the sclera
  • presents light from escaping the retina by bouncing it back to the retina
  • ensures retina receives most of the light
170
Q

retina

A
  • receives light / image signal
  • contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones)
171
Q

rod cells (in retina)

A
  • functions well under dim light
  • not sensitive to colour
  • responsible for light of different intensity (black and white , night vision)
172
Q

cone cells (in retina)

A
  • functions well under bright light
  • responsible for colour vision
173
Q

image formation

A
  • light rays pass through the cornea , iris , lens and vitreous body
  • lens helps to focus the light rays onto the retina by adjusting the thickness of the lens (inverted image)
  • photoreceptor cells on the retina generate nerve impulses
  • image signal is sent to the optic nerve (cranial nerve II)
  • optic nerve sends it to the brain’s visual cortex where the image is interpreted
174
Q

vitreous body

A
  • very clear , jelly-like structure in the middle of the eye that gives the eye its shape
  • works with aqueous humour to provide nutrients to the structures in the eye and maintain the shape of the eye
175
Q

conjunctiva

A
  • a very thin , transparent layer surrounding the outer surface / sclera
  • squamous epithelium
  • also the inner layer of the eyelid
176
Q

limbus

A
  • connection point between the cornea and sclera
177
Q

anterior / posterior chambers

A
  • iris divides the space between the lens and cornea into anterior and posterior chambers
  • posterior = very small (between iris and lens)
  • anterior = bigger (between iris and cornea)
  • chambers are filled with aqueous humour
178
Q

aqueous humour

A
  • fluid secreted by the ciliary body
  • works with vitreous body to provide nutrients to the structures in the eye and maintain the shape of the eye
179
Q

circulation of aqueous humour

A
  • watery fluid produced by ciliary body and secreted into posterior chamber
  • flows over the surface of the lens
  • circulates through the pupil
  • drains into canal of Schlemm in the anterior chamber
  • important to maintain the pressure of the eye and provide nutrients for the lens and cornea that have no blood vessels
180
Q

myopia

A
  • short-sightedness
  • image falls in front of the retina
  • cannot see objects that are far away clearly
  • due to abnormality in the lens that could be caused by any factors e.g. age or injury
181
Q

hyperopia

A
  • long-sightedness
  • image falls behind the retina
  • cannot see objects that are nearby clearly (far away objects appear more clear)
  • due to abnormality in the lens that could be caused by any factors e.g. age or injury
182
Q

eyelids

A
  • protects the eye
  • external surface covered by a thin , folded skin
  • internal surface covered by a smooth conjunctiva (a very thin membrane)
183
Q

meibomian glands / tarsal glands

A
  • opening is directly on the edge of the eyelid
  • produces oily tears (not watery tears)
  • these tears float on the surface of watery tears , preventing evaporation and making sure eyes do not dry out
184
Q

tear apparatus and pathway of tears

A
  • tears are produced in the tear (lacrimal) gland
  • disperses across corneal surfaces
  • enters the tear duct (lacrimal canaliculi) at punctum
  • enters nasal cavity via nasolacrimal duct
185
Q

external / outer ear

A
  • pinna
  • external auditory canal
186
Q

pinna

A
  • outer portion of the ear
  • the part we can see
  • mainly elastic cartilage and skin
187
Q

external auditory canal

A
  • carries sound waves to tympanic membrane / eardrum
188
Q

middle ear

A
  • air filled cavity
  • ear drum
  • 3 small ossicles in the cavity behind the ear drum (malleus , incus , stapes)
189
Q

ear drum

A
  • paper-thin membrane
  • vibrates when a sound wave strikes it
190
Q

3 small ossicles

A
  • malleus , incus and stapes
  • amplify and transmit sound vibrations from external to inner ear
  • when the sound from the external ear reaches the middle ear , the ear drum starts vibrating and this vibration is passed to the ossicles
191
Q

inner ear

A
  • eustachian tube

in a small , fluid filled cavity deep within the skull :
- cochlea
- vestibular system

192
Q

eustachian tube

A
  • connects middle ear cavity with the pharynx
  • balances air pressure on the 2 sides of the ear drum
193
Q

cochlea

A
  • coiled , snail-shell-shaped structure
  • lined with sensory cells called hair cells
  • hair cells convert sound vibrations into electrical signals
  • sensitive to different sound frequencies
  • information is transmitted via auditory nerve (cranial nerve VIII / vestibulocochlear)
194
Q

sound perception

A
  • sound vibrations travel through the external auditory canal to the ear drum
  • ear drum vibrates
  • vibration transfers to 3 ossicles which amplify vibrations to oval window on inner ear
  • when a vibration enters the cochlea from the middle ear , fluid in the cochlea vibrates
  • vibration of fluid causes hair cells to bend
  • bending of hair cells sends a signal to the cochlear nerve (cranial nerve XII / vestibulocochlear)
  • vestibulocochlear nerve sends the signal to the brain’s auditory cortex where it gets translated to a sound
195
Q

vestibular system

A
  • responsible for balance and equilibrium
  • 3 semicircular canals (tiny fluid filled tubes) and otolith organs (utricle and saccule)
  • they contain fluid and sensory hair cells
  • fluid shifts when head shifts
  • movement of fluid bend hair cells
  • hair cells predict loss of balance and position of the head
  • sends signal to the cranial nerve XII vestibulocochlear nerve
  • the brain sends signal and the body adjusts movement
  • helps to stay balanced and oriented
196
Q

integumentary system

A
  • outer covering of the body
  • skin
  • hair
  • claws
  • footpads
197
Q

skin

A
  • largest organ of the body
  • barrier against external environment
  • perforated (where skin blends with mucous membrane) by mouth , anus , urinary orifice and vulva
  • 3 layers : epidermis , dermis and hypodermis
198
Q

epidermis

A
  • outermost layer
  • stratified epithelial cells
  • new cells are produced on the basal layer and reach the outermost layer as they get older , thus cells on the epidermis are usually already dead and contains a lot of keratin
  • no blood vessels
  • no nerves
  • 4 layers of cells : stratum basale , stratium spinosum , stratum granulosum , stratum corneum
199
Q

stratum basal

A
  • lowest / basal layer
  • newest cells
200
Q

stratum spinosum

A
  • 2nd lowest layer
  • spinous layer
201
Q

stratum granulosum

A
  • 2nd highest layer
  • granulated = older
  • granular cell layer
202
Q

stratum corneum

A
  • highest. layer
  • contains keratin , slightly hard
  • most cells are already dead
203
Q

dermis

A
  • dense connective tissue , collagen and elastin fibres
  • rich in blood vessels and nerve endings
  • includes hair follicles (a channel that hair grows from) , sebaceous glands and sweat glands
204
Q

functions of the skin

A
  • sensory (nerve endings to detect temperature , pressure , touch and pain)
  • protection (barrier between external environment and internal structures ; prevents entry of microorganisms and injury of organs , protects against damage from UV light and water loss , prevents absorption of harmful substances)
  • production (glands to produce secretion)
  • storage (fat ; important as it provides energy and keeps warm . mainly stored in the hypodermis layer)
  • thermoregulation (heat loss ; dilation of surface blood vessel = more blood flow = heat escapes quickly / sweating = loss of water = evaporation = cools skin surface . heat gain ; constriction of surface blood vessel = not much blood passes = heat cannot escape quickly = conserve heat . insulation ; fat under the skin prevents heat loss and hair traps warm hair)
  • communication ; skin produces pheromones for intraspecific communication , colour also provides communication eg when attracting a mate
205
Q

sensory - skin function

A

nerve endings to detect temperature , pressure , touch and pain

206
Q

protection - skin function

A
  • barrier between external environment and internal structures
  • prevents entry of microorganisms and injury of organs
  • protects against damage from UV light and water loss
  • prevents absorption of harmful substances
207
Q

production - skin function

A
  • glands to produce secretion
208
Q

storage - skin function

A
  • fat ; important as it provides energy and keeps warm
  • mainly stored in the hypodermis layer)
209
Q

thermoregulation - skin function

A
  • heat loss ; dilation of surface blood vessel = more blood flow = heat escapes quickly
  • sweating = loss of water = evaporation = cools skin surface
  • heat gain ; constriction of surface blood vessel = not much blood passes = heat cannot escape quickly = conserve heat
  • insulation ; fat under the skin prevents heat loss
  • hair traps warm air
210
Q

communication - skin function

A
  • skin produces pheromones for intraspecific communication
  • colour also provides communication eg when attracting a mate
211
Q

sebaceous glands

A
  • surrounds the hair follicles and secretes sebum
  • forms a thin , oily , water-repellent layer over the skin surface
  • gives coat hair a shiny appearance
  • prevents bacterial growth on skin surface (has an aseptic function and can kill some microorganisms)
212
Q

sweat glands (2 types)

A
  • 1 type opens into hair follicle
  • other type opens onto skin surface
  • sweat evaporates to cool the body
  • sweat removes some waste from the body
213
Q

tail glands

A
  • dorsal surface at the base of the tail
  • rich with sweat and sebaceous glands
  • release of sweat and sebum give off a unique scent that allows for recognition and identification of individual animals
214
Q

anal glands

A
  • pair of glands on either side of the anus
  • has a small duct that opens into the anus
  • powerful smelling secretions
  • secretions coat faeces to cover it with a unique smell for territory marking and attracting a mate
215
Q

structure of hair

A
  • everything outside that can be seen = hair shaft
  • everything inside that cannot be seen = hair root
  • surrounding the hair root = hair follicle
  • deepest part of hair follicle = hair bulb
  • 2 layers holding the hair root = inner and outer root sheath
  • bottom of hair follicle where there is a cluster of dermal cells and blood vessels , provides nutrients to hair = hair papilla
  • pulls hair so it can erect = arrector pili muscle
  • nerve endings
216
Q

arrector pili muscle

A
  • small , smooth muscle
  • attached to each hair follicle
  • controlled by sympathetic nervous system (involuntary)
  • muscle contraction pushes the hair to an erect position (can be due to temperature , fear , aggression , etc)
217
Q

growth cycles of hair (4 phases)

A
  • anagen (growing)
  • catagen (transitional)
  • telogen (resting)
  • return to anagen
218
Q

anagen phase

A
  • growth phase
  • young hair cells divide to build hair
  • shaft lengthens
  • papilla attached to blood vessels provides nutrients
219
Q

catagen phase

A
  • transitional phase
  • hair is grown
  • hair follicle shrinks
  • hair follicle begins to detach from the blood vessels
220
Q

telogen phase

A
  • resting phase
  • hair stops growing
  • fully detaches from blood vessels
221
Q

return to anagen

A
  • new hair grows
  • papilla attaches to blood vessels
  • new hair shaft pushes out old hair shaft
  • sheds old hair
222
Q

types of hair

A
  • guard hairs
  • wool hairs
  • sinus hairs
223
Q

guard hairs

A
  • longer and coarser
  • prevent water from soaking into the coat
  • protect against mechanical damage
224
Q

wool hairs

A
  • softer and wavy
  • close to body surface
  • insulating layer to regulate body temperature
225
Q

sinus hairs

A
  • long , coarse hairs that extend beyond the body outside
  • e.g. whiskers
  • whiskers have nerve endings and are sensitive
  • they are connected to blood-filled sinuses with rich nerve supply
  • when they move , they stimulate nerve fibres and send a nerve impulse to the brain
226
Q

claws

A
  • beak shaped
  • 2 layers of epidermis
  • keratinised epidermis forms a hard outer covering of each claw
  • protects distal phalanges during walking and weight bearing
  • provides grip
227
Q

claws of dog

A
  • thick and strong
228
Q

claws of cat

A
  • fine
  • much sharper than a dog’s
  • can be retracted into pockets of skin by an elastic ligament
  • used as a defensive weapon
229
Q

forelimb footpads

A
  • dog forelimb = 6 pads (4 digits , carpal pad , metacarpal pad)
  • cat forelimb = 7 pads (5 digits , carpal pad , metacarpal pad)
230
Q

hindlimb footpads

A
  • dog hindlimb = 5 pads (4 digits , metatarsal pad)
  • cat hindlimb = 5 pads (4 digits , metatarsal pad)
231
Q

footpads

A
  • contains thick layers of fat and connective tissue
  • outer surface has the toughest and thickest skin in the body
  • protects underlying joints
  • acts as shock absorbers

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